This paper examines a highly specialized type of belt assembly that, according to current scholarship, appears to be predominantly associated with Great Moravian sites – a topic that has been the subject of two years of preliminary research by the author. The primary objective of this study is to formulate a comprehensive typology and outline the defining structural characteristics of these artifacts, present the most significant archaeological finds, and introduce their experimental reconstructions. Finally, the symbolic dimensions of these belt assemblies within their contemporary context are evaluated.
Description
The defining morphological characteristic of the belt type under discussion is the complete absence of a buckle prong. In archaeological assemblages, this distinctive feature serves as a key diagnostic attribute for identifying this particular class of belt fittings. The functional role of the prong is superseded by a bird-shaped fitting; when passed through the buckle frame, the raised neck of the bird rests against the bow, thereby securing the belt. This fitting simultaneously obviates the need for traditional belt adjustment holes. The following analysis examines the spatial distribution and frequency of these mounts along the belt strap.
Individual Mounts
In this arrangement, a single bird-shaped mount spans the entire width of the strap at a given position. The mounts were secured using either two rivets – as proposed in Galuška’s reconstruction (Galuška 2013: 63, Fig. 40) – or three rivets, as evidenced by Grave 13 within the magnate court at Pohansko near Břeclav (Kouřil 2014: 359). Alternatively, attachment was achieved via two integral cast shanks projecting from the underside of the fitting, as observed in Graves 360 and 433 adjacent to Church No. 3 at Mikulčice (Kouřil 2014: 355, 363). These shanks featured flattened, perforated terminals oriented perpendicular to the main axis of the object. They were inserted through the leather strap and an internal metal backing plate (washer), then secured on the reverse side by passing a wire through the perforations. An intact backing plate of this type was recovered alongside the fitting from Grave 433 near Church No. 3 in Mikulčice (Kouřil 2014: 355).
It appears that this wire mechanism could be easily removed, allowing for the straightforward detachment of the entire mount – a mechanism that would have facilitated subsequent adjustments to the belt length. Analogous attachment methods are documented on 6th–7th century belt sets across Western and Eastern Europe, where, in addition to metallic wire, wooden rods, small metal bars, or leather thongs were employed as locking devices (Chajredinova 2010: 71, 73; 2016: 249, 263; Chajredinova et al. 2025: Fig. 2a; Pirling 1966: 195; Schulze-Dörrlamm 1990: 266; Walter et al. 2007: 22).
Belt fitting from Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko near Břeclav.
Kouřil 2014: 359.
Belt fitting from Grave 360 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 363.
Belt fitting from Grave 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 355.
Reconstruction of the belt fitting from Grave 22 at Modrá. Galuška 2013: 63, Fig. 40.
The bird figures are inserted onto the strap in reverse orientation.
Composite Mounts
In this arrangement, the mount at a given position on the strap consists of two bird motifs positioned side by side, collectively spanning the width of the belt. These bird figures were either discrete elements forming a pair of separate fittings, or integrated into a single casting. An example of discrete fittings is provided by the mount from Grave 156/49 at Staré Město (Hrubý 1955: 194, 440, Fig. 36), which is secured by two rivets. Although the paired application of certain individual shanked mounts cannot be entirely ruled out, it remains improbable. Integrated double-bird mounts were attached using either two rivets (Mikulčice metal detector survey 2011) or four rivets (Grave 390 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice; Kouřil 2014: 362). Alternatively, they featured three (Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice; Kouřil 2014: 366) or four perforated shanks (Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice; Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice; Kouřil 2014: 362, 371).
The shanked composite mounts were secured using an analogous method to that of the single mounts. Wire secured across the individual perforations is most clearly visible in the assemblage from Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice (Poulík 1975: 100, Fig. 25). On one of the mounts from this grave, the securing wires appear to have been interconnected by a small strip or band, the precise function of which remains undetermined at present.
Belt fitting from Grave 390 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 362.
Belt fitting from Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 364; Poulík 1975: 100, Fig. 25.
Belt fitting from Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 366; Poulík 1975: Pl. 37.
Graphic reconstruction of the belt assembly from Grave 156/49 at Staré Město.
Hrubý 1955: 199, Fig. 36.
These mounts could be arranged across the belt in several rows; archaeological evidence documents single-row configurations (Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko; Grave 360 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice), double-row configurations (Grave 156/49 at Staré Město; Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice), and triple-row configurations (Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice; Graves 295, 390, and 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice). This variable frequency provides valuable insight into Great Moravian belts and early medieval belt sets as a whole. It confirms that belts were custom-fitted to the individual wearer, exceeding the circumference of the waist only marginally. Notably, on the belt from Grave 156/49 at Staré Město, the mounts are spaced 4–5 cm apart (Hrubý 1955: 194), an interval that closely mirrors the spacing of adjustment holes on modern belts.
Regarding raw materials, the mounts are predominantly fabricated from copper alloys, occasionally gilded (Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko; Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice; Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice; Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice), even in instances where the remaining belt components are made of silver. This material preference was likely dictated by the structural strength and rigidity of copper alloys relative to silver, which would have been far more prone to bending under mechanical stress. A clear distinction can be drawn between mounts hammered from sheet metal (Grave 156/49 at Staré Město) and those produced by casting (Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko; Grave 310/48 at Dolní Věstonice – Na Pískách; Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice; Graves 295, 360, 390, and 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice; Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice). The sheet-metal specimens exhibit a significantly more schematic execution, whereas the cast examples represent highly detailed three-dimensional miniatures of birds with folded wings. Nevertheless, isolated finds crafted from silver (Zalavár), iron (Libice nad Cidlinou, Modrá u Velehradu), and lead (Dolné Vestenice II – Hradov) are also recorded in the archaeological record.
Catalogue
Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice
The belt assembly recovered from Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice comprised eight distinct components (Kouřil 2014: 366). A silver buckle, measuring 4.7 × 4.4 cm, was attached to the belt strap by means of two rivets. A silver strap end (5.1 × 3.2 cm), partially gilded, features decoration on both sides, including an engraved figure of an orant (praying figure) on the reverse. This strap end was secured to the belt using five rivets, presumably made of silver. The main body of the belt strap was embellished with three bird-shaped mounts (1.8 × 1.6 cm) crafted from gilded copper alloy, which were fastened by three integral shanks. Additionally, the belt was fitted with three bossed mounts made of the same material (2 × 1.5 cm), each secured by a single rivet. A highly similar boss featuring a thickened rim and an internal rivet – described as being fabricated from gilded bronze sheet – was recovered as a surface find at Mikulčice in 1967 (square K14); it likely detached from a comparable belt set. The entire grave assemblage is dated to the 9th century.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 100 near Church No. 2 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 366.
Grave 248 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice
An assemblage potentially belonging to the same belt type was uncovered in Grave 248 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice, consisting of a prongless buckle and a strap end (Klanica et al. 2019: 181). Both components are gilded. However, the bird-shaped mount is missing from the assemblage. The grave context is dated to the 9th century (Kouřil 2014: 361).
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 248 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Klanica et al. 2019: 181.
Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice
The belt set recovered from Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice comprised four components manufactured from gilded copper alloy (Kouřil 2014: 371). A buckle was absent from the assemblage. The strap end, measuring 3.5 × 2.3 cm, is decorated on one side with chip-carving and appears to have been attached to the strap with four rivets. The body of the belt was decorated with three bird-shaped mounts measuring 1.9 × 1.6 cm, 1.9 × 1 cm, and 1.9 × 1 cm, respectively, which were secured by shanks. In addition to the strap end and mounts, the original inventory drawing depicts a presumed copper-alloy sheet fragment; while initially thought to derive from the strap end, it more likely represents a attachment plate used to retain the buckle. The entire assemblage was reportedly deposited adjacent to the left calf bone, suggesting the belt was loosely laid over the body. The grave is dated to the 9th century.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 371.
Grave 360 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice
The belt assembly recovered from Grave 360 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice consisted of three components (Kouřil 2014: 363). A gilded copper-alloy buckle, measuring 3.7 × 3.2 cm, features a wavy-line pattern on the bow and was attached to the leather strap by two rivets. A strap end made of the same material (3.4 × 2.3 cm) is decorated on one side with chip-carving; the original number of rivets remains unknown. The strap was further adorned with a single bird-shaped mount (1.8 × 0.6 cm), which was secured via two integral shanks. The entire burial context is dated to the 9th century.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 360 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 363.
Grave 390 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice
The belt set from Grave 390 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice comprised five components (Kouřil 2014: 362) and undoubtedly represents one of the most magnificent belt assemblies known from Great Moravia. The silver buckle (6.3 × 3.5 cm) is decorated with incised parallel lines along the bow; its attachment plate is missing, having disintegrated over time following its initial recovery (see Klanica et al. 2019: Fig. 65.1). The silver strap end (7.2 × 4.2 cm) features polychrome glass inlays and an antique cameo on the obverse, while the reverse is engraved with an orant figure. The strap end appears to have been secured by seven rivets. The body of the belt was decorated with three copper-alloy bird mounts (2.1 × 2.7 cm), each attached by four rivets. Personal examination of one of these bird clasps suggests that sheet metal was applied on the reverse side of the strap (exhibition Great Moravian Elites, Modrá Treasury, August 2024). Furthermore, textile impressions are preserved on the underside of the mount, rendering it probable that the leather strap was originally faced with fabric or that it is a remnant of clothing (compare with Klanica et al. 2019: 59). The grave is dated to the 9th century.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 390 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 362.
Grave 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice
Three bird-shaped mounts were recovered from Grave 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice (Kouřil 2014: 355; Klanica et al. 2019: 241). Cast from copper alloy, each mount measures 2.2 × 0.9 cm and was fitted with two shanks onto which a metal backing plate was slotted, then locked in place with wrapped wire. The grave goods also included a copper-alloy buckle with a prong and two silver strap ends of differing dimensions; however, it remains uncertain whether these components belonged to a single ensemble or represented multiple sets (Ungerman 2002: 114–115).
Bird-shaped mounts from Grave 433 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice.
Klanica et al. 2019: 241.
Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice
The belt set from Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice comprised four components crafted from gilded copper alloy (Kouřil 2014: 364). A buckle measuring 3.6 × 2.6 cm was fastened to the strap using two rivets. The strap end (3 × 2.1 cm) exhibits one-sided chip-carving decoration and was secured with four rivets. The strap was decorated with two bird-shaped mounts measuring 2.3 × 2.7 cm and 2.2 × 2.5 cm, respectively. These fittings were fastened via shanks strung with wire and small metal bands (Poulík 1975: 100, Fig. 25). The entire assemblage is dated to the 9th century. Notably, the buckle originally appears to have possessed a prong slot. The buckle – and very likely the strap end – can be identified as Frankish imports that were subsequently modified locally and supplemented with the bird-shaped mounts. This interpretation is supported by a remarkably close parallel from Grave Bj 750 at Birka, Sweden, which contained an identical buckle set lacking the bird fittings (Arbman 1940: Pl. 86.1).
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice.
Kouřil 2014: 364.
Metal Detector Finds from 2010–2011, Mikulčice
Petr Luňák, a participant in the surface metal detector surveys at Mikulčice, brought to our attention two mounts recovered in 2010. One specimen is identical to the mount from Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko, while the second corresponds directly to the find from Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice. In the following year (2011), a composite mount comprising two bird figures was discovered; while styled similarly to the mounts from Grave 295 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice, it represents an atypical variant. Two symmetrical holes were drilled through the stylized wings on the upper surface to secure the fitting via rivets. The bird figures also feature clearly delineated eyes. All three surface finds were cast from ungilded copper alloy. Although currently unpublished, these artefacts were subjected to personal examination by the author in January 2024.
Grave 156/49 at Staré Město
The belt assembly from Grave 156/49 measures approximately 7.5 cm in width. Its buckle (8.7 × 4.6 cm) consists of an oval frame made from a copper-alloy bar onto which an attachment plate – presumably of the same material – was fitted and secured to the leather strap by three rivets. Four bird-shaped mounts (2.3 cm in length) are arranged on the strap in two parallel pairs. These fittings were crafted from an unspecified metal; while Dostál suggests they are iron (Dostál 1966: 66), the present author argues they were manufactured from the same copper alloy as the buckle. Each mount was secured to the belt using two rivets. The strap terminates in a hollow, cylindrical strap end (7.7 × 1 cm) rolled from transversely ribbed bronze sheet. None of the components in this belt set appear to have been cast (Hrubý 1955: 194, 440, Fig. 35.19, Fig. 36).
Although the burial context securely dates to the 9th century, Hrubý postulated that the material and morphology of this belt set derived from Late Roman prototypes (Hrubý 1955: 191). This interpretation is supported by a detail previously unexamined in the literature: the remnants of decorative leatherwork. Without further elaboration, Hrubý noted the presence of decorative stitching holes along the leather strap (Hrubý 1955: 440). As these organic fragments are no longer extant (as confirmed by the author’s inspection of the original assemblage at the Moravian Museum in Brno), this feature cannot be re-examined directly. However, the sole surviving photograph (Hrubý 1955: Pl. 59.1) indicates that the strap was almost certainly stitched across its entire width over a distance exceeding 1 cm, as evidenced by a distinct grid of perforations. Analogous leatherworking techniques are documented from the 5th to 7th centuries, when broad belts were extensively perforated and embroidered with thread to form complex ornamental patterns (cf. Brieske 2001: 268, Fig. 115; see comparisons with the reconstruction study by Frank Georgi). It is entirely plausible that this belt assembly either consciously emulated an archaic fashion several centuries older or incorporated re-used antique components.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 156/49 at Staré Město.
Hrubý 1955: Pl. 59.1–3.
Schematic drawing of the strap end from Grave 156/49 at Staré Město.
Hrubý 1955: Fig. 35.19.
Grave 13 at the Magnate Court at Pohansko
The belt set recovered from Grave 13 at the magnate court in Břeclav-Pohansko consisted of three components manufactured from gilded copper alloy (Kouřil 2014: 359). The buckle (4.3 × 4.3 cm) features concentric circle ornamentation on the bow and was attached to the belt strap using three rivets. A bird-shaped mount measuring 2.2 × 1.6 cm was fastened to the leather strap by three rivets fitted with washers. The strap end (3.8 × 2.6 cm) exhibits decoration on both sides, including an engraved mask-like motif on the reverse. It was attached with three rivets, between which decorative bosses mimicking additional rivets were situated. The burial context is dated to the 9th century.
Metallic components of the belt set from Grave 13 at the magnate court in Pohansko.
Kouřil 2014: 359.
Grave 310/48, Dolní Věstonice – Na Pískách
A copper-alloy mount depicting two stylized birds was recovered from Grave 310/48 at the site of Dolní Věstonice – Na Pískách (Poulík 1948–50: 81, 164, Fig. 40b; Ungerman 2023: 63, Pl. 66.3). It measures 1.8 cm in length, 1.52 cm in width, and 1.4 cm in height (including two 0.8 cm high perforated shanks on the reverse). The bodies of the birds feature incised grooving. This fitting appears to have been in secondary re-use, as it was deposited near the skull, while the deceased wore a separate belt around the waist equipped with a simple iron buckle with a prong.
Bird-shaped mounts from Dolní Věstonice.
Poulík 1948–50: Fig. 40b; Ungerman 2023: Pl. 66.3.
Grave 22/54, Modrá near Velehrad
Remains of at least two belts were uncovered in a relatively richly furnished male burial at Modrá (Hrubý et al. 1955: 74–75, 93). The assemblage included three iron mounts shaped as single birds with raised heads (length 2.5 cm, width 1.6 cm). These mounts were secured to the surface material using three small rivets.
Mounts from Modrá. Hrubý et al. 1955: Pl. XXV.3–5.
Bojná I – Valy
A mount made of gilded copper alloy (measuring 2.8 × 1.8 × 1.3 cm) was originally published by Kouřil as a manuscript book fitting (Kouřil 2014: 444). However, Ungerman argues that the classification as a book fitting is unsubstantiated and that the object corresponds directly to bird-shaped belt mounts (Ungerman 2015: Note 21). The object was attached to its substrate by three rivets and dates to the 9th century. In September 2025, a significantly simpler copper-alloy mount was discovered at the hillfort (Robak 2025: 197). Measuring 2.6 cm in length, 1.1 cm in maximum width, and 0.6 cm in height, this fitting is provided with three attachment perforations.
Bird-shaped mount from Bojná I – Valy. Kouřil 2014: 444.
Simplified mount from Bojná. Robak 2025: Fig. 14.6.
Grave E229, Nitra – Šindolka
A copper-alloy mount measuring 2.6 × 1.7 cm was originally published by Kouřil as a manuscript book fitting (Kouřil 2014: 444). However, Ungerman contends that the classification as a book mount is unsubstantiated and that the item corresponds directly to bird-shaped belt fittings (Ungerman 2015: Note 21). The object was secured to the surface by three rivets. In Grave E229, which dates to the 10th–11th centuries, the bird-shaped fitting was used secondarily as a pendant on a necklace.
Bird-shaped mount from Grave E229 at Nitra – Šindolka.
Kouřil 2014: 444.
Dolné Vestenice II – Hradov
A lead bird-shaped mount measuring approximately 3.2 cm in length and 1.4 cm in width was discovered at the hillfort of Dolné Vestenice (Robak 2025). Morphologically, the fitting closely resembles the find from Pohansko, though it features an elongated tail section. It appears to represent a defective casting that was discarded prior to the drilling or execution of attachment holes.
Mount from Dolné Vestenice II. Robak 2025: Fig. 14.2.1, 14.4.
Zalavár – Mosaburg
A silver mount measuring 2.25 × 1.6 cm, morphologically identical to the specimen from Pohansko, originates from the precinct of the Church of St Hadrian (Szőke 2014: Fig. 85). The find is currently held in the permanent exhibition of the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest under inventory number 2013.1.183.2.Z. It does not appear to feature attachment perforations.
Mount from Zalavár – Mosaburg.
Szőke 2014: Fig. 85 and author’s photograph.
Libice nad Cidlinou
A total of four finds originate from Libice nad Cidlinou, attesting to the influence of Great Moravian fashion within the Bohemian milieu. The first specimen was brought to our attention by Petr Luňák: an iron bird-shaped clasp fitting resembling the find from Bojná I – Valy, with which it shares a distinctly raised neck and three attachment rivets. To the best of our knowledge, this find remains poorly published in the literature; it originates from the hillfort site (Turek 1982: 69) and is currently on display at the National Museum in Prague under inventory number H1-310007.
Bird-shaped mount from Libice nad Cidlinou. Photo: Petr Luňák.
Three additional copper-alloy specimens derive from metal detector surveys and are due to be published by Jan Mařík. At present, it can be disclosed that the first mount (National Museum, inv. no. H1-543726) was discovered in 2012 and is virtually identical to the find from Nitra – Šindolka, whereas the second find (National Museum, inv. no. H1-543727), recovered in 2017, is practically identical to the specimen from Pohansko. The third mount, likewise housed in the National Museum and likely recovered after 2017, depicts a pair of birds (Lutovský 2026: 55). This latter fitting is nearly identical to the mount from Grave 50 near Church No. 6 at Mikulčice, though significantly longer (approximately 4 cm). Perforated attachment shanks are visible on its underside.
Two bird-shaped mounts from Libice nad Cidlinou.
Photo: Author.
Third mount from Libice nad Cidlinou. Photo: Author and Jakub Kurák.
Dřevíč
In 2026, a previously unpublished mount discovered during a metal detector survey at the Dřevíč hillfort was displayed as part of the exhibition The Přemyslids. A Ruling Dynasty and Its Age at the National Museum in Prague. The gilded mount closely approaches the specimen from Pohansko in both morphology and dimensions. The object belongs to the collections of the T. G. Masaryk Museum in Rakovník.
Mount from Dřevíč. Photo: Author and Jakub Kurák.
The Polish Group
Analogous bird-shaped mounts are surprisingly numerous in Poland, with related specimens also recorded in Slavic areas of Germany and on the Danish island of Bornholm. Rather than representing a homogeneous group, at least two distinct morphological variants can be discerned, both of which have been systematically mapped by Leszek Gardeła (summarized in Gardeła 2024). The variant characterized by broader shoulders and forked wings is documented in Grave 42 at Ciepłe (Wadyl 2019: 141–144, Pls. 38–39) and Graves 5 and 10 at Lutomiersk (Gardeła – Kajkowski – Ratajczyk 2019: 67–68, Figs. 2–3, 7; Wachowski 2006: Fig. 3). In these depositional contexts, the catches—manufactured predominantly from copper alloys – were deposited in association with luxurious spurs dated to the late 10th or early 11th century.
Bird-shaped mounts from Grave 42 at Ciepłe.
Wadyl 2019: Pls. 38–39.
Bird-shaped mounts from Grave 5 at Lutomiersk.
Gardeła – Kajkowski – Ratajczyk 2019: Figs. 2–3.
Bird-shaped mount from Grave 10 at Lutomiersk.
Gardeła – Kajkowski – Ratajczyk 2019: Fig. 7; Wachowski 2006: Fig. 3.
A somewhat distinct form of bird-shaped mount, lacking the crescentically projecting wings, has been recovered from Lake Lednica (Gardeła 2024), Giecz (Krysztofiak 2016: Fig. 25d), Wolin (Janowski 2014: 32), the German sites of Libnow (Schirren 2016: 264) and Starrvitz (Großnick 2019: 108), and Døvregård on Bornholm (Gardeła 2024: Fig. 14e). These mounts were crafted either from gilded copper alloy or silver. Their chronological placement corresponds to a similar horizon as the aforementioned variant.
Bird-shaped mounts. Gardeła 2024: Figs. 13–14.
Summary
The belt type described herein is attested at the most prominent Great Moravian sites across modern Moravia and Slovakia, most notably at Mikulčice, which alone accounts for 12 specimens (including burials where its presence is inferred due to the absence of a buckle prong, e.g. Graves 240 and 248 near Church No. 3). Ungerman initially posited that this fashion disseminated directly from Mikulčice (Ungerman 2002: 100), though he subsequently revised this view to hypothesize that the concept of belts with discrete bird mount may theoretically have derived from the Frankish Realm (Ungerman 2022: 327). Nováková suggests that a certain source of inspiration – not only for the bird symbolism but also for the extensive belt ornamentation – originated within the Avar cultural sphere, albeit transformed into a distinct indigenous decorative style (Nováková 2015: 27–30).
The assembly comprises a buckle, a strap end, and an bird-shaped mount. This fitting replaces both the buckle prong and the belt adjustment holes while simultaneously functioning as a prominent decorative element. The mounts were predominantly manufactured from copper alloys and, more exceptionally, from silver, lead, or iron. They were attached either by riveting or via two integral shanks; in the case of the shanked variants, the fittings could apparently be easily detached and repositioned along the strap as required. Overall, this represents an elite, high-status belt type, alongside which simpler variants also existed. As Ungerman emphasizes, belts featuring bird-shaped mounts occur “exclusively on prestigious belts, virtually never on simple bronze or iron sets” (Ungerman 2002: 100). Chronologically, this belt type belongs to the 9th century and represents “a highly original closure mechanism developed in a domestic context” (Ungerman 2002: 100–101). However, while Ungerman further asserts that “following the fall of Great Moravia, it fell back into oblivion” (Ungerman 2002: 101), this claim can no longer be sustained in light of recent discoveries. It now appears evident that these mounts remained in use within Bohemia and attained significant popularity in Piast Poland during the 10th century, lingering into the following century. It is telling that the nascent Bohemian and Polish polities, seeking political legitimacy, drew upon Great Moravian traditions not only in terms of ecclesiastical organization (e.g. Sommer – Třeštík – Žemlička 2013: 233), but also through the adoption of key material culture items representative of Great Moravian elite identity.
The bird imagery demonstrated on these belts appears across a wide range of artifacts produced within Great Moravian and early Přemyslid material culture. Beyond belt sets, bird motifs are documented on gombíky buttons, knife handles, buckets, scabbard chapes, axes, finger rings, and decorative discs. The view that “bird symbolism usually pertains to specific zoological species rather than birds in general” (Nováková 2015: 30) relies, in the present author’s estimation, upon an over-interpretation of highly schematic zoomorphic motifs and lacks empirical support. The pitfall of such an approach lies in the reduction of context: isolated from its broader scene, the bird depicted on the famous falconer plaque from Staré Město appears to ornithologists as a parrot (Mlíkovský 2005). It may be argued that when bird figures appear without accompanying human figures or prey, they rarely convey the impression of raptors; rather, they resemble doves, game or water birds, and occasionally peacocks or pheasants. This contrasts remarkably with Scandinavian iconography, which is saturated with birds of prey. Gardeła interprets the birds on the Polish group of mounts as resembling nightjars (Caprimulgidae), into whose wings two additional bird figures rendered in profile are ingeniously incorporated (Gardeła 2026: 154–157).
To date, no comprehensive study has offered an exhaustive interpretive framework for this bird symbolism (with the exception of Roganský 2009: 43). It was undoubtedly a symbol laden with positive connotations. It is entirely plausible that the bird motif was integrated into Christian iconographic programs in Great Moravia, as evidenced by liturgical vessels (Kouřil 2014: 434); nevertheless, its significance does not appear to have been exclusively bound to Christian theology. Crucially, bird imagery occurs on high-quality, valuable jewellery and prestigious objects tied directly to a specific social stratum. It may have occupied a role within dynastic origin myths or creation narratives. An additional interpretation relies on the bio-behavioral tendency of humans to identify with animals sharing perceptual or social traits (Batt 2009); for the early medieval elite, the bird may have embodied desirable social or personal virtues. A 2009 study examining the cross-cultural perception of animal species revealed high positive scores for birds, attributed to their physiological affinities with mammals, bipedalism, social inclinations, and pair-bonding with extensive biparental care (Batt 2009). Furthermore, concepts such as freedom, nobility, and high status – implicitly embedded within bird iconography – would have resonated strongly with the highest social echelons. Belts themselves were recognized status markers (Klanica 1970: 78), and positioning a bird fitting on the functional, kinetic element of the belt created a potent visual symbolic effect, effectively “bringing the miniature animal to life.” In Piast Poland, the symbolism of bird-shaped mounts appears to have been woven into complex mythological narratives that served as markers of group identity (Gardeła – Kajkowski – Söderberg 2019).
Mgr. Jiří Dynda from the Institute of Slavonic Studies of the Czech Academy of Sciences provided the following consultation:
“In interpreting the symbolism of the birds, I would primarily consider Christian horizons: especially the dove as the Holy Spirit – though I do not know whether this is acceptable for the 9th and 10th centuries. But I must admit that the mounts featuring two birds side by side brought to mind the cosmogonic Earth Diver myth, which was known among the (admittedly, only Southern and Eastern) Slavs (e.g. the apocryphon about the Sea of Tiberias and other texts), in which water birds, mostly goldeneyes or ducks, usually appear. It is highly speculative, but on the other hand, such considerations would follow the direction of, for instance, Leszek Gardeła regarding spurs or Jiří Macháček regarding strap ends with a frog and a snake – that these seemingly utilitarian luxury objects could be bearers of pre-Christian mythological or cosmological symbolisms.“
Selection of Great Moravian and early Přemyslid artifacts featuring bird symbolism:
1 – belt plaque from Grave 24/48 at Staré Město (Hrubý 1955: Fig. 37); 2 – belt strap end from Grave 190/50 at Staré Město (Hrubý 1955: Fig. 35.13); 3 – decorative disc from Staré Město (Galuška 2004: 99); 4 – gombík button from Grave 251/49 at Staré Město (Hrubý 1955: Fig. 39.1); 5 – gombík from Grave 282/49 at Staré Město (Hrubý 1955: Fig. 39.3); 6 – gombík from Kačice (Kalina 2010: Pl. II); 7 – gombík from Budeč (Bartošková 2014: Fig. 10.13); 8 – gombík from Grave H84 in the Lumbe Garden at Prague Castle (Frolík – Smetánka 2014: 152); 9 – antler/bone plaque from Budeč (Bartošková 2014: Fig. 30); 10 – finger ring from Levý Hradec (Tomková 2012: Fig. 179.3); 11 – axe from Bašnice (Rokoská 2023); 12 – decoration of a liturgical vessel from Grave 300 near Church No. 3 at Mikulčice (Kouřil 2014: 434).
Reconstruction of Polish mounts recovered alongside spurs.
Elżbieta Górska, Archaeological and Ethnographical Museum in Łódź, 2020.
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