Introduction
Throughout human history, we encounter the phenomenon of depositing treasures – so-called hoards – in the ground. Hoards can consist of any valuables, especially those of a metal nature, which hold their value well and are less susceptible to decay. In a world without a trustworthy banking system, depositing them in the ground represents the simplest form of protection of accumulated wealth (e.g. Andrews 2019; Mairat et al. 2022; Rovelli 2012). In the established archaeological literature, there is a tendency to associate the depositing of hoards with turbulent, violent times (Lutovský 2001: 57; Turčan 2012: 41-46).
A wide range of means were used to store treasures in the Early Middle Ages, including both durable containers made of ceramic, stone or metal, which are well preserved, and less durable organic solutions, such as textile and leather pouches, bags and bottles, wooden, veneer and bark boxes and chests, containers made of turned wood or wax (Andrews 2019: 177-190; Graham-Campbell 1995: 59-60; Hatz 1974: 82; Ingvardson 2025: 160; Korzuchina 1954: 10; Myrberg 2009a: 161; Stenberger 1958: 237; Tõnisson 1962: 263; Wiechmann 1996: 102-7; for a specific example, see Vlasatý 2024).
Peculiar and not very well-known examples are containers made of durable body parts of animals. Medieval man was able to store the valuables in antler boxes (Overbeck – Bierbrauer 1979; Pfister 1844), cow bones (Andrews 2019: 187), cow hoofs (Metcalf 1977: 3, 33) and cow horns. It is cow horns that will be the subject of our further interest. A comprehensive description of this phenomenon is missing (the longest discussion is offered by Graham-Campbell 1995: 59-60; Hatz 1974: 82; Stenberger 1958: 239; Wiechmann 1996: 105) and horn containers are not mentioned in some important monographs of recent years (e.g. Gruszczyński 2019). The study of horn hoards shows a remarkable range of period thinking and puts the media-interesting horns in a somewhat different light.

Fig. 1: Approximate reconstruction of the hoard in a horn.
Authors: Søren Cyr and Kolla Kǫttr.
Description of the phenomenon
Cow horns are widely available and inexpensive livestock products that are extremely resistant to mechanical damage, waterproof, and hold liquids and loose materials well. For this reason, with only minor surface treatment, they were excellent for making drinking and blowing horns (Petersen 1951: 396-400), but also simple containers for valuables, cases for food, seasonings, ink, oil, sand, grain, water, and later also gunpowder (Frantzen 2014: 77; MacGregor 1985: 154). Horns were also used as holders for whetstones that needed to be moistened (Spurkland 2005: 32-3), as sausage stuffers (Mårtensson 1976: 239; Serra – Tunberg 2017: 97), musical instruments (Serning 1966: Pl. 5.15), as slip trailers, drenching horns, hammers, thumb guards (Hardwick 1981: 67-72), for feeding babies (Ynglinga saga 25) and the like. If undecorated horns are found in early medieval graves, it is essentially impossible to determine the function of the usually heavily damaged horn. Horns may also have been chosen for storing treasures because they are relatively inconspicuous.
Horn hoards seems to be a relatively widespread phenomenon both geographically and chronologically. In the catalogue presented below, we have collected at least 25 hoards from the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The organic component of hoards is preserved only in heathland regions (Andrews 2019: 187), so horn hoards are naturally found mainly in the belt from the British Isles through Scandinavia to the Baltics, but the find from the Czech Republic suggests that it may be a pan-European practice. Nevertheless, there seems to be some regionality in the distribution – for example, they are completely unknown in continental Carolingian hoards (see Haertle 1997) and the author was unable to find a single example of a horn hoard from the territories of Poland and the Russian Federation.
The catalogue selected hoards that can be chronologically classified into the period from the end of the 10th to the end of the 15th century. Despite all efforts, the author did not find horn hoards that would be dated before the 10th century. The high number at the end of the 10th and in the 11th century is given by the generally high number of hoards in that period (Hatz 1974: 647). The burying in horns continued at least until the 18th century, as evidenced by five hoards not listed in the catalogue: a hoard from Fjälebo in Halland, Sweden (SHM 5760) contained 15 coins from 1563-5 (Månadsblad 1876: 317); a hoard of silver and gold coins from the 16th century was found in Dumfries, Scotland in 1768 (Lindsay 1845: 260); a hoard from Braeside, Scotland contained 60 coins and was probably deposited in the 1570s (Holmes 2006: 47; Metcalf 1977: Cat. no. 242); a hoard from Troedsberga, Sweden (SHM 8981) dated to 1676-1705 contained 15 coins and two belt buckles (Månadsblad 1891: 155) and a horn from Sleaty, Ireland, which was hidden among the thatch, contained about 400 coins from the 16th-18th centuries (Archibald 1975: Cat. no. 409).

Fig. 2: Author’s suggestions of horn closures.
Author: Diego Flores Cartes.
Essentially all horn hoards were found by chance and unprofessionally, usually in connection with agricultural activities of the 18th-20th centuries. Since the metal component of the hoards – silver coins, hack jewellery, ingots and the like – was more important to the finders, most of the horns were irretrievably lost without any knowledge of their structural details being gained. If the hoard was of a large nature, it may have been placed in two horns. The silver may have been wrapped in a piece of cloth inside the horn (Graham-Campbell 1995: 151), or the entire horns may have been wrapped in cloth (Graham-Campbell 1995: 101). The horns were not decorated, but they may have had a lid to protect the treasure. Lids are relatively uncommon in drinking horns throughout history and must be a specific feature of the containers (see Magerøy 1987; Olrik 1909). In one case, an organic lid is described that was attached with a hinge (Stenberger 1958: 239). Similar lids are known from early medieval iconography depicting inkhorns (e.g. Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, HAStK 7010 312, f. 110r; Mans, BM 0263, f. 10v) and are also known from modern horn containers (Hardwick 1981: 68), as well as from early medieval wooden, antler and metal boxes (Hochmanová-Vávrová 1962: Tab. XI.10; Steuer 1997: Abb. 14a; Wicker 2020). The range of ways of closing the horns could have been significantly wider: a lid fitting into the mouth, a lid covering the entire mouth of the horn, a plate inserted into a notch in the horn (see Hardwick 1981: 68) and the like. In one case, a stopper made of a thick lead plate was used (Wiechmann 1996: 105). Whether the horns inside could have been divided into compartments as in modern horns is unknown (see Hardwick 1981: 68).

Fig. 3: Inkhorn caps in 10th-12th century iconography.
Left: cap attached with a strap. Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln, HAStK 7010 312, f. 110r.
Right: horn covered with a cap. Mans, BM 0263, f. 10v.
Myrberg is of the opinion that the burying the hoards in cow horns could have had a certain symbolic role and expressed “fertility, abundance and rebirth” (Myrberg 2009b: 137). This idea may be based on the similarity with the ancient motif of the cornūcōpia. Without wishing to completely reject the symbolic level, the chronological and geographical spread rather suggests that the main driving force behind the depositing in horns was the need for high-quality, inexpensive and inconspicuous storage of a large number of valuables.
As far as we know, there is only one written testimony about the placement of a gold treasure in a horn. The Old Norse work of Skáldskaparmál, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, describes in chapter 54 the origin of the expressions “Kraki’s Seed” and “Seed of Fýris-Plain” as poetic translations for gold. The work mentions a story from the 6th century, when the Danish king Hrólfr Kraki traveled to the Swedish king and stepfather Aðils to Uppsala to extort payment from him for his help in a previous war campaign. However, King Aðils unsuccessfully tried to kill Hrólfr, whereupon Hrólfr seized the hereditary treasure of the Swedish kings and a horn full of gold (dýrshorn fullt af gulli) and began to flee on horseback to his ships. When he was subsequently pursued, Hrólfr gradually threw away the gold to force the men to stop and collect the valuables. King Hrólfr saved his life through this ingenious ruse. Although this is a unique description of the transport of a golden treasure in a horn, it is important to keep in mind that the author is creating an analogy here to a farmer who sows the grain from a horn.
Map 1: Geographic distribution of medieval hoards in horns.
Catalog
Czech Republic
- Ochoz near Zbonín, Czech Republic
The hoard of 196 coins found in a cow horn in 1938. Dating back to the 1460s.
Literature: Kolář 1983; Nohejlová-Prátová 1956: Cat. no. 2833.
Denmark
- Blykobbegård, Bornholm, Denmark
The hoard, discovered in 2017, consists of two parts: one was stored in an unpreserved horn (visible from the negative), the other in a leather bag. Total weight of silver 542 g. The hoard was stored in the years 1018-1020 at the earliest.
Literature: Ingvardson 2025: 161-3, 245, Tab. 7.1.

Fig. 4: Blykobbegård hoard.
Source: Ingvardson 2025: Fig. 7.1.
- Klim, Jutland, Denmark
The hoard was found in 1896. 43 coins weighing 160 grams were stored in the horn. The hoard was stored after 1332.
Literature: Andrews 2019: 187; Jensen et al. 1992b: 117, Cat. no. 176.
- Tornegård, Bornholm, Denmark
The hoard was discovered in 1846 during plowing. It contained 117 silver objects and was deposited between 1047-1060.
Literature: Ingvardson 2025: 280, Tab. 7.1; Jensen et al. 1992a: 205-7, Cat. no. 12; Skovmand 1942: 163.

Fig. 5: Tornegård hoard horn. Source: Jensen et al. 1992a: 207.
Estonia
- Loosi, Võrumaa, Estonia
The hoard, found in 1871, consisted of jewellery and seven hundred coins, which were placed in a horn. The find is dated to the 14th century.
Literature: Tõnisson 1962: 200, 263, Cat. no. 97.
Germany
- List, Sylt, Germany
A remarkable hoard, discovered in 1937, contained 616 complete and 155 incomplete coins, other fragments of silver semi-finished products and jewellery. The hoard was placed in a fragmentarily preserved horn, which had a stopper made of a thick oval plate of lead. It is possible that the stopper had some form of closing mechanism, e.g. by means of wires. Dated to the first quarter of the 11th century.
Literature: Koehn 1975: 64-5; Wiechmann 1996: 105, Cat. no. 16.

Fig. 6: Horn fragments and the stopper from List.
Source: Wiechmann 1996: Taf. 8, 95.
- Lübeck, Germany
In 1975, a small hoard was recovered from the well, containing a horn filled with 153 coins. The youngest coin was from 1492.
Literature: Ahlers 1980; Graßmann – North 1988.

Fig. 7: Lübeck horn. Source: Graßmann – North 1988.
Sweden
- Bosarve, Gotland, Sweden
The hoard (SHM 22468) was found in 1939. Silver fragments and 417 coins were stored in a horn and one ceramic vessel. The total weight of the silver is almost 674 grams. It was probably stored in the years 1060-1070.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 171; Stenberger 1947: Cat. no. 521.
- Föra, Öland, Sweden
In the site of Rävgräva, during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, a number of silver coin hoards were found (SHM 8513, 10957, 20390, 23289), which are considered to be fragments of a single hoard deposited after 1039/1046. Around 1813, a horn with coins was discovered, but this part of the hoard was sold to a goldsmith.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 106; Lindberger 2006: 20; Stenberger 1933: 78.
- Hulte, Gotland, Sweden
The hoard (SHM 5362) found in 1874. About 455 and fragmentary silver jewellery were stored in the fragmentary horn. It was probably stored between 990-1000.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 40; Stenberger 1947: Cat. no. 115.
- Hörningsholm, Södermanland, Sweden
The horn (SHM 3535) found in 1866. Pieces of silver jewellery and 116 coins stored in a horn, dating to after 1044.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 231.
- Lagmansberga, Östergötland, Sweden
In 1874, the hoard (SHM 5379) containing a horn and 2069 coins was found, the last minted pieces dating from 1275-1290. A year later, another horn with 54 coins of the same date was found at the same location (SHM 5636).
Literature: Malmer – Wiséhn 1982: 19; Månadsblad 1875: 195; Thordeman 1936: 27, 69, Cat. nos. 47-8.
- Sandes, Gotland, Sweden
The horn (SHM 4557) discovered in 1871. Silver fragments of jewellery and 118 coins were placed in a fragmentarily preserved horn, which was probably buried around the year 1000.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 386; Stenberger 1947: Cat. no. 206.
- Tingby, Småland, Sweden
In 1872, the hoard (SHM 4858) was found, partly buried in a horn, consisting of jewellery and 3882 coins. Deposited around 1200.
Literature: Myrberg 2009a: 161.

Fig. 8: Tingby hoard horn. Source: catalog SHM.
- Uddeby under Gustavsvik, Värmland, Sweden
The hoard (SHM 6619) found in 1880 contained 90 coins, fragments of silver jewellery, and a horn tip. The hoard was buried after 1018.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 22.

Fig. 9: Uddeby Gustavsvik hoard horn. Source: catalog SHM.
- Ytlings, Gotland, Sweden
The hoard (SHM 9533) found in 1894. The finder reported that the hoard of silver jewellery fragments and over 600 coins was placed in two well-preserved horns, which were fitted with lids made of horn or similar material. The lids were attached with copper alloy hinges. The finder handed over the metal component of the hoard, but unfortunately let the horns rot. The hoard was probably put into the ground around the year 1000.
Literature: Hatz 1974: 82, Cat. no. 91; Stenberger 1947: Cat. no. 413; Stenberger 1958: 239.
United Kingdom
- Caldale, Orkney Islands, United Kingdom
The lost hoard, found in 1774, consisted of two horns, more than 300 coins, and bracelets placed next to them. Deposited around 1032-1040.
Literature: Graham-Campbell 1978: 123; 1995: 24, 53, 96-7.

Fig. 10: Caldale hoard horn. Source: Graham-Campbell 1995: Pl. 1b.
- Castle Enigan, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
In 1814, a worker found a horn containing approximately 200 coins. The horn had been deposited in the 14th century.
Literature: Seaby 1955: Cat. nos. 18-19.
- Cockey Moor, Lancashire, United Kingdom
The horn, discovered in 1822, contained 60 coins in a cow horn. The horn was buried after 1413.
Literature: Archibald 1977: 131, Cat. no. 334; Andrews 2019: 187.
- Durisdeer, Scotland, United Kingdom
The hoard discovered between 1815-1820, containing over 1000 coins that were stored in a horn. Dated to 1280-1360.
Literature: Metcalf 1977: Cat. no. 75.
- Garthsbanks, Shetland Islands, United Kingdom
The hoard, discovered in 1830 during plowing, consisted of a horn filled with smaller silver objects and separately stored bracelets. The horn was wrapped in fabric. It was deposited between 991-1000.
Literature: Graham-Campbell 1978: 122-3; 1995: 12, 23, 100-1.
- Jedburgh (Swinnie), Scotland, United Kingdom
The hoard was found in a horn before 1845. Deposited after 1424.
Literature: Metcalf 1977: Cat. no. 166.
- Lews Castle, Outer Hebrides, United Kingdom
In 1988, a hoard of coins, cut bracelets and brooches (42 pieces in total) weighing almost 263 grams was discovered. It was wrapped in plain-weave linen and placed in a horn. The find is dated between 990 and 1040.
Literature: Blackburn 1995; Graham-Campbell 1995: 52, 147-152.

Fig. 11: Lews Castle hoard horn. Source: Graham-Campbell 1995: Fig. 59.
- Machrie, Isle of Arran, United Kingdom
The hoard was discovered in 1850 and consisted of at least 120 coins and an unspecified quantity of ingots and hack-silver. According to a newspaper article from the time of the discovery, workmen came across a horn which they smashed by throwing it to the ground, revealing the silver hoard. The hoard is believed to have been deposited around 970-980.
Literature: Graham-Campbell 1995: 104; Pagan 2014: 426.
- Malton, East Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Details unknown. High or late medieval dating.
Literature: Andrews 2019: 187.
- Monkstown, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
In 1903, a horn containing 153 coins was found. They were deposited in the second half of the 14th century, probably before 1395.
Literature: Seaby 1955: Cat. no. 8.
- Park Llewellyn, Isle of Man, United Kingdom
The horn, discovered in 1835, contained at least 10 coins. Deposited around 1031.
Literature: Archibald 1977: 129, Cat. no. 320.
- Thornhill (parish Morton), Scotland, United Kingdom
A hoard discovered in a horn in 1866. Dated to 1280-1360.
Literature: Metcalf 1977: Cat. no. 95.
Acknowledgment
The author expresses his gratitude to Mateusz Bogucki (Institute of Archaeology, Polish Academy of Sciences), Simon Coupland (University of Cambridge), Lars Grundvad (Sønderskov Museum) and Ny Björn Gustafsson (Swedish National Heritage Board) for consultation and sending important literature. We must also mention Diego Flores Cartes, who is the author of the illustrations. The visualization was significantly helped by reenactors Søren Cyr and Kolla Kǫttr, who created photographs for the purposes of the article that can be viewed at the following link:

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