Introduction
This article serves as an indirect follow-up to three previous works in which Tomáš Vlasatý discussed Petersen sword types M (Vlasatý 2019a), W (Vlasatý 2020a) and G (Vlasatý 2020b). In these studies, the author focused on relatively lesser-known variants of Early Medieval European swords. The work presented below is dedicated to an interesting group of swords whose typological classification was, according to Jan Petersen, relatively complex, primarily due to the indeterminate shape of their pommels, leading to their categorization as Type V. I was intrigued on the one hand by the diversity of their decoration, and on the other by their relatively extensive distribution across Europe, as well as the fact that some specimens have not received significant scholarly attention, with references being merely marginal or unpublished.
The article is divided into six parts. The first chapter focuses on a detailed description of the individual structural components of the sword type in question. The second chapter discusses the decoration of the guards and pommels. The primary aim here is to distinguish between the individual variants of decoration that may be encountered with this type; an equally important section emphasizes the visual differences in decoration between Types V and T2, which may sometimes appear similar, a topic addressed in the third chapter. The fourth chapter of the article examines the distribution of the studied sword type across Europe, followed by the fifth chapter, which places this sword type within a chronological horizon. The sixth part maps iconographic evidence of swords with trilobate pommels that could represent Petersen Type V.
Included in this work is a catalogue of swords in tabular form. In compiling the catalogue and analyzing individual finds, we relied primarily on the criteria characterizing this sword type as defined by Jan Petersen. We took into account preserved decoration in horizontal stepped and chessboard patterns, as well as the form of the hilt’s structural parts, which, together with decoration, are key elements in distinguishing Type V from Type T2. Furthermore, the study includes certain swords that, although preserved without the pommel cap, exhibit applied horizontal stepped decoration, or where the decoration has not survived but the morphological properties of the upper guard may indicate affiliation with the type in question. Such swords are subsequently marked with a question mark in the catalogue.
I. Description – Structural Components
In his work De Norske Vikingesverd (1919: 154-156, Pl. III), Jan Petersen lists – alongside swords with straight guards and bipartite pommels divided into three parts (A, D, E, R, S, T, and U) – another type. This type is similarly characterized by a bipartite pommel divided into three segments, but its assignment to any of the aforementioned types is complicated due to its indeterminate shape. The Norwegian scholar assigned these specimens to Type V, which he defined as swords with relatively high pommels reaching a height of 3–4 cm, with a uniformly rounded upper edge and indistinct transitions between the lobes of the pommel cap. According to him, the decoration of the guards and pommels is predominantly stepped, executed in silver or bronze. Within Geibig’s typology, swords of this type, together with types U and W, belong to combination type 11 (Geibig 1991: 54-56; Fig. 12).
From a morphological perspective, it could be stated that Type V swords may represent a certain structural stage between types A, D, E, R, S, T, U, and Z, a fact also noted by Mikael Jakobsson when compiling an analysis of Viking Age sword hilts. In it, he defined six, or rather seven, so-called principles – groups of hilts according to Petersen based on structural elements. In Jakobsson’s work, Type V thus corresponds to Principle 2, in which he included all swords ranging from narrow triangular pommel caps to plastically convex pommel caps of the following types: variants of Type A, Type Mannheim, Special Type 2, Special Type 1, Type Mannheim/Speyer, Type D, Special Type 14, Special Type 6, Type L, the older variant of Type X, Special Type 13, Type E, Special Type 19, Type U, Type W, Type R, Type S, Type T, and Type Z (Jakobsson 1992: 36-37). He perceives Type V, together with Type D, Special Type 14, Special Type 6, Type L, Special Type 13, Type E, Type U, and Type W, as younger variants and successors of Carolingian swords (Jakobsson 1992: 39).
Hošek, Košta, and Žákovský state that types S, T, and V, together with Type Z, represent a certain morphological continuity that also includes various transitional variants (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 319). Likewise, a common element among them is inlaid decoration, including Type R (Martens – Astrup 2021: 26). Of all the variants named above, Type V swords are closest to Type T, which Jan Petersen divided into two sub-variants – T1 and T2 – based on decoration and the weight of the upper guard and crossguard (Petersen 1919: 150-153, Figs. 119-121). Type T1 is characterized either by tubular decoration, linking it to Petersen Type E (Martens – Astrup 2021: 45; Kainov – Novikov 2024: 192, 198, Fig. 206), or Jelling-style zoomorphic decoration, which it shares with Type S (Martens – Astrup 2021: 28). Conversely, Type T2 features decoration applied in the form of geometric patterns of alternating triangles and rhombuses, linking it specifically to the type under investigation (Kainov 2012: 41; Maczek et al. 2024: 292), a topic we will address below.
Fig. 1. Sword hilt typology according to Jan Petersen.
Source: Hjardar – Vike 2016: 169.
I.1 The Pommel
Type V pommels are always bipartite, divided into an upper guard and a pommel cap. When viewed from above, the shape of the upper guard is oval, in some cases significantly so (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322). The upper guard is thickest in the centre, tapering towards the ends with rounded edges. Two circular holes are located on its surface, serving to fasten the rivets connecting it to the pommel cap. In the centre, between the circular holes, there is a narrow rectangular opening through which the blade tang passed. Viewed frontally, the upper guard has a straight shape. Its ends may be rounded or beveled obliquely towards the pommel cap. Not only are they morphologically identical to the crossguard, but they often reach the same height.
The construction of the hilt belongs to Type II within Geibig’s classification (Geibig 1991: 91, Fig. 24). This means that the upper guard and pommel cap could be connected by two rivets fastened to the wall of the pommel cap on either side, or their connection was achieved by a bent wedge/loop in the form of an inverted U (⋂). However, X-ray images of several swords make it clear that the upper guard and pommel cap were connected specifically by a wedge (Androshchuk 2014: 79; Petri 2017: 139, Fig. 1; Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: Fig. 107. b-c). The fixation of the wedge to the inner surface of the pommel cap was achieved using solder, which in one case was identified as brass (Frait 2006: 98). Such a structural solution can also be encountered in some Type H/I swords (Thålin-Bergman – Arrhenius 2005: 36, Fig. 10. SHM 14924, Fig. 24. BJ 542; Kainov – Novikov 2024: Fig. 68. 1, 3-4, Fig. 210. 3).
Furthermore, we know of swords that, due to the absence of the pommel cap, have been preserved with the bent wedge protruding from the upper guard. Two of these have survived with stepped decoration. One comes from Ukraine. It is a stray find from the vicinity of Khmelnytskyi in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast, held in a private collection (Eidel 2022: 34-37). The second is a grave find from Hommerstad, Stange, in the county of Hedmark, Norway (now Innlandet) (C4979). Jan Petersen originally designated it as Special Type 20 along with a sword from the site of Hammerstad, Stange, in the same county (Petersen 1919: 174). The Norwegian researcher was aware that the wedge is not a criterion for defining the type, as some Type H swords were also preserved in this manner – T1441 (Petersen 1919: Fig. 81) – but rather pointed out that the upper guard of Special Type 20 is hollow (Androshchuk 2014: 59). Fedir Androshchuk holds the opinion that swords of Special Type 20 are essentially misunderstood Types H and I, combining two methods of pommel attachment – wedge and rivets (Androshchuk 2014: 60). The Hommerstad sword also appears in Oluf Rygh’s catalogue under number R503 (Rygh 1885). Fedir Androshchuk perceives both Norwegian specimens as swords of the same group and thus classifies them as Type H/I (Androshchuk 2014: 60). Other researchers classify both specimens as Type V (Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen – Ingstad 1999: 83; Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 1573, 1574).
A sword from Haynasch, Salis county (now the port town of Ainaži in the Limbaži Municipality, on the Gulf of Riga, Latvia) has mostly been compared analogously with Petersen’s Special Type 20 (Nerman 1929: 86, Figs. 78-79). The side edges of the upper guard are obliquely beveled just as on the Norwegian specimen (C4979), with the difference that the Latvian sword likely bears no surviving traces of decoration. The pommel cap could have been either triangular or trilobate.
We also have documented finds of separate pommel caps with preserved rivets/wedges (Ibsen 2013: 246, Fig. IV; Goßler – Jahn 2019: Fig. 88). One such find is a pommel cap from the Norwegian site of Loftsgården in Telemark (C17404). It is classified under type R510, which is close to Petersen Type T (Rygh 1885; Petersen 1919: Fig. 119-121). Irmelin Martens and Eva E. Astrup view it as a possible Type V (Martens – Astrup 2021: 145, appendix 1). The surface of the pommel cap is covered with grooves showing traces of non-ferrous metal decoration.
The space between the upper guard and the pommel cap was typically filled with twisted silver wire in three rows one below the other, or by a single, more massive twisted wire. The pommel cap is divided into three parts by two oblique grooves, into which a filling of twisted silver wires was also applied in three rows side by side. Apart from this method of pommel cap division, we have one preserved sword from Gnezdovo, Russia, where these oblique grooves are absent. The division here is indicated by inlaid twisted wires, typically applied to fill the inner parts of the rhomboid decoration of the pommels and crossguards of the sword type in question (Kainov 2012: Fig. 36). Similar pommel cap division is fragmentarily documented on the pommel of a sword from the Ukrainian site of Pidhirci, creating a so-called herringbone pattern. It is not excluded that the pommel caps of swords from Utanmyra in Sweden (SHM16807), from an unknown location in Bulgaria (Zlatkov 2014: 138), from Székesfehérvár in Hungary (Bakay 1965: Tab. IV), or from Čierna nad Tisou (photograph provided by Ján Rákoš), as well as the pommel cap find from the East Prussian site of Wiskiauten (Ibsen 2013: Fig. IV), were divided in the same way. All these mentioned swords have a pommel with no surviving decoration, or only fragments of coloured non-ferrous wires preserved, and we can thus see that the pommel caps lack the typical oblique grooves dividing them.
The central lobe is the largest and highest. The two lateral ones are smaller. Morphologically, Type V pommels are variable. On some specimens, we can observe the central lobe transitioning into a smooth oval; on others, it rises significantly and is slightly conically rounded, thus resembling Petersen Type T2 pommels. Differences can also be observed in the size and shape of the lateral segments. Some specimens may have lobes in the form of stylized beast heads, another feature linking Type V with Type T2. In such cases, the lobes are concave – some slightly, others more pronouncedly. We may also encounter pommels whose lateral lobes have almost no inward curvature and appear rather to be obliquely truncated. The shape of Type T2 pommels differs from Type V primarily in the appearance of the central lobe, which is significantly higher, rising sharply upwards, giving it a sugar-loaf shape. Also, the aforementioned lateral lobes are more concave, further underscoring their zoomorphic character. Another difference is the oblique beveling of the guards. In some cases, not only are the upper guards obliquely truncated but the crossguards as well. While the upper guards are cut obliquely upwards, in the case of crossguards it is the opposite – obliquely downwards towards the blade.
The height of surviving pommels (upper guard and pommel cap) ranges from 3.4 to 5.8 cm. The highest pommel recorded reaches 6.2 cm (Androshchuk 2014: 365, Cat. No. Sk 18*). Based on my observation, the length of the upper guard ranges from 6.5 to 8.3 cm, which roughly corresponds to Fedir Androshchuk’s data (Androshchuk 2014: 79). However, we also record longer upper guards. A specimen from Gauttun, Norway, has an upper guard 8.7 cm long (personal communication with Melanie Wrigglesworth). The longest upper guard we record reaches 9.5 cm (Kirpichnikov 1966a: 78-79, Cat. No. 40). Pommel caps are approximately 5.4 to 7.6 cm long (author’s observation). From the Petrovskoye burial ground comes a pommel cap reaching 8.5 cm in length (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 133). According to measurements by Sergei Kainov, the length of the upper guard in the Old Rus’ environment typically ranges from 7 to 7.7 cm, adding that the length of the pommel cap from the Petrovskoye burial ground is more characteristic of Type T2 (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 133-134). The thickness, based on my observation, ranges from 2 to 2.8 cm, reaching up to 3.2 cm in the sword from the North German site of Süderbrarup (Müller – Wille 1977: 64).
I.2 The Grip – Blade Tang
The grip has been preserved on almost the majority of the analyzed swords of the studied type, whether in a complete state or in the form of fragments. Today, many of them consist only of the blade tang, which was in the past covered by organic or potentially metallic material. We are able to recognize this material in several specimens. We encounter wood most frequently, which is present on more than ten swords. In the case of the sword from the burial mound at the site of Ballateare on the Isle of Man, we record wooden cladding made of oak (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 68). Besides wood, we also have a preserved grip made of antler. The specimen comes from the Swedish site of Rösta (Kjellmark 1905: 364-367, Fig. 21) (Fig. 2). The grip was fastened to the underlying surface along the sides using small rivets. The decoration takes the form of vertical lines which taper from the guards towards the centre of the grip, resembling an hourglass. The engraved lines are filled with resin (Zachrisson 1997: 210, Fig. 128). The length of the grip reaches 10.5 cm, and the width transitions from the crossguard to the pommel from 3 to 2.5 cm (Androshchuk 2014: 356, Cat. No. Jä 9).
Circular holes on the surface of the tang may be associated with the wooden or bone covering of the hilt tang. We register such holes on the sword from the Bulgarian region of Sliven, where the hole is located in the centre of the tang (Zlatkov 2014: 138), and two circular holes are positioned in the tang of the sword from the vicinity of the town of Szécsény in Hungary (Kovács 1994-1995: Fig. 8. 1).
Fig. 2. Antler grip cladding of the sword from the Swedish site of Rösta, Ås, Jämtland.
Source: SHM Stockholm.
Two swords feature a blade tang covered by metal cladding. A sword originating from Kyiv features a grip formed by a wide silver sheet, decorated with an oriental palmette motif (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 96-97) (Fig. 4). We record a cast bronze grip decorated with a geometric motif featuring an interlace pattern on a sword from the Estonian island of Saaremaa (Jets 2013: 47-48) (Fig. 3). The ornamentation consists of two triple bands with looped ends, terminating in triangular projections in two directions – towards the crossguard and towards the pommel. A rhomboid pattern is thus created in the centre. The closest analogies for such tang cladding can be found on a Petersen Type Z sword from the Black Grave (Chorna mohyla) in Chernihiv, or on a hilt fragment originating from the Trelleborg ring fortress in Denmark, which was also made of copper alloy and partially covered by a silver sheet to which an engraved pattern was applied (Kainov 2019a: Figs. 3.1, 10.2). Based on the Trelleborg parallel, we can assume that the copper-alloy grip of the sword from Saaremaa Island may have been silver-plated.
Fig. 3. Cast bronze grip cladding of the sword from Saaremaa Island, Estonia.
Source: Jets 2013: 47, Fig. 22.
Fig. 4. Silver grip cladding of the sword from Grave No. 108 in Kyiv with a palmette pattern.
Source: antikvar.ua publishing house archive.
From Grave No. 280 at the Aglonas Kristapiņi cemetery in Latvia comes a sword whose wooden grip was covered with a wide copper-alloy sheet band (Fig. 5), fastened to the wooden core by two bronze nails (Tomsons 2018: 66, Fig. 32. 2). Parallels for such wrapping of weapon hilts can be found in the territory of Latvia most frequently on the hafts of narrow-bladed axes (Vlasatý 2022c) or in the case of several javelin finds that were wrapped with similar copper-alloy sheet strips (Tomsons 2018: 66).
Fig. 5. Sword hilt from the Latvian site of Aglonas Kristapiņi.
Source: Tomsons 2018: 66, Fig. 32. 2.
We also possess documented evidence of grips wrapped in wire. This feature is present on swords from the Estonian site of Raatvere (Kiudsoo 2019: 50) and from Székesfehérvár in Hungary; in the latter case, however, only a fragment of silver wire wrapped around the tang below the base of the pommel has survived (Bakay 1967: Fig. 9.3). The grip of the sword from Eyrarteigur, Iceland, must also have been wrapped in metal wire in the past, as evidenced by impression marks of wire winding on its surface (Ísberg 2020: 64-65). The grip of the sword from the Lithuanian site of Žvirbliai was reportedly also covered with silver wire (Iwanowska – Kazakevičius 2001: 250). Wire wrapping can be documented on one further find from Latvia: a sword from the richly furnished male Grave No. 30 at the Latgallian cemetery of Priekuļu Ģūģeri. However, the wire is wound only partially, around the centre of the tang (Tomsons 2018: Figs. 32. 1, 33. 1). A more intriguing feature of this sword consists of two long triangular plates. Their broad sides are positioned below the upper guard and above the crossguard, with their points facing each other. The pointed ends of the plates are overlaid by the aforementioned bronze wire over a width of 3 cm (Tomsons 2018: 65, Fig. 32. 1). The surface of the plates is decorated with silver wire inlay (Tomsons 2018: 65).
Similar plates are also encountered in the Old Rus’ environment, specifically in a find from the Petrovskoye burial ground (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 133-134) (Figs. 6.2, 7.2). Found alongside the plate was a trilobate pommel cap, identified as part of a Type V sword, despite the fact that no decoration has survived on it (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 133, 137 – Fig. 1. 3, 138 – Fig. 2.3). The plate found with it preserves stepped decoration on its narrower part and side (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 137 – Fig. 1.2, 138 – Fig. 2.2). Chemical analysis revealed that silver and copper (copper alloy) wire inlay was used for the plate’s decoration. The density of the inlay is approximately 30 wires per 10 mm (Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 133). Another find of a similar plate is known from Gnezdovo (Fig. 6.1, 7.1). The object comes from an unknown burial mound (Kainov 2012: 62, Fig. 48). The front surface of the plate is covered with horizontal grooves that were filled with silver wire (Kainov 2012: 62). Although the silver inlay has barely survived, the motif can be reconstructed thanks to the corroded surface (Kainov 2012: 62). In this case too, the pattern consisted of triangles with points facing each other, arranged along the long sides of the upper parts of the plate (Kainov 2012: 62). Sergei Y. Kainov hypothesizes that the plate find from the unknown mound may in fact originate from Kurgan C-20 (41), where a Petersen Type V sword was also found (Kainov 2012: 62, note 41). Triangular plates on the grip are also encountered on a sword discovered in a chamber grave at the Danish site of Errindlev. In this instance, the plates are significantly smaller and made of silver. They are positioned below the upper guard and above the crossguard, with their points facing each other. The decoration of the triangle above the crossguard has not survived entirely; the pattern is formed by two horizontal bands placed one below the other, featuring volutes facing each other. The triangular plate below the upper guard is decorated with variously twisted band lines, the ends of which also terminate in volute forms (Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 9. 1, 1a).
Fig. 6. 1. Triangular plate from a Gnezdovo burial mound; 2. Triangular plate from the Petrovskoye No. 38.
Source: Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 138, Fig. 2. 1-2.
Fig. 7. 1. Drawing of the triangular plate from a Gnezdovo burial mound; 2. Drawing of the triangular plate from the Petrovskoye No. 38.
a – decoration scheme in the narrower part, b – decoration scheme in the wider part.
Source: Kainov – Zozulya 2014: 137, Fig. 1. 1, 2 a-b (modified); drawn by A. S. Dementieva.
A relatively atypical component of the hilt assembly in the studied sword type consists of bronze ferrules located below the crossguard and the pommel, a feature preserved on a specimen from the harbour in Hedeby (Geibig 1999: 58, Cat. No. 6, Tab. 6). These take the form of coronets; their upper rim – the widest part of the ferrules – is bordered by a beaded band, beneath which stylized elongated animal heads with distinct oval ears project along the entire length. Eyes are indicated below the ears. Circular ornamentation is visible between the individual heads. A granulated band winds around the heads. Such ferrules were cast from bronze and occasionally took the shape of human heads (Androshchuk 2014: 49). It is plausible that references to these may be found in written sources, likely appearing under the name véttrim (Androshchuk 2014: 31, 49; Vlasatý 2019b). However, this element is more typical of Type D (C8095, C24887) or Type K swords (Geibig 1991: 367, Tab. 157. 1-3). They can also be encountered on types such as Petersen Type H/I (C18494, Petersen 1919: 93, Fig. 82; Żabiński 2007: 39, Fig. 5).
Some swords have also been preserved with small wedges positioned between the tang and the upper guard (Zlatkov 2014: 139; Moilanen 2015: 417) or between the tang and the crossguard (Moilanen 2015: 418) (Fig. 8). One hypothesis regarding the use of such wedges is that they may have been related in some way to the construction of the grip (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý; Viskupič 2023), or that their function was to secure the tang to an upper guard and/or crossguard featuring a larger aperture (personal communication with Mikko Moilanen). The latter possibility appears more probable. Such small wedges were employed in cases where the hilt components may have originated from different smithies than the blade (personal communication with Mikko Moilanen). According to M. Moilanen, some wedges are small corroded pieces of iron, possibly scrap iron. He suggests that some appear to be copper alloys, though this cannot be confirmed with certainty as they have not been analyzed (personal communication with Mikko Moilanen).
Based on personal observation, the length of the grip, or more precisely the tang, ranges approximately from 8.2 to 10.5 cm.
Fig. 8. Placement of wedges on sword hilts.
1. Sliven, Bulgaria; 2. Jämsä, Finland; 3. Asikkala, Finland.
Source: Zlatkov 2014: 138, 39; finna.fi catalogue; Moilanen 2018: 129.
I.3 The Crossguard
As indicated above in the section describing the pommel, the morphology of the crossguards of the studied type corresponds closely to that of the upper guard. When viewed frontally, they are straight, frequently featuring rounded edges. We also document crossguards with parallel terminals. Viewed from above, their form is oval, sometimes significantly so. They taper from the centre towards the terminals, with rounded edges. The dimensions – length, height, and thickness – of the guards (including the upper guards) vary among individual swords. Some swords are equipped with a massive crossguard, others with a narrower one. Crossguard length varies from 8.2 to 12.3 cm. Height ranges from 1 to 2.4 cm, and thickness from 1.8 to 3.5 cm (author’s observation; Androshchuk 2014: 79). Like the upper guard, the crossguards were decorated, and the decorative motifs on both components are identical.
At this juncture, it is pertinent to mention the intriguing constructional solution of not only the crossguard but also the pommel of a sword discovered in the waters of Hedeby harbour (Geibig 1999: Cat. No. 6). The method of hilt construction is atypical for the studied type. Based on X-ray images of the sword, it appears that the crossguard and pommel consisted of several components fastened together by rivets (Geibig 1999: Tab. 14). This implies that flat, thin plates – decorated on both visible faces – were attached to the core of the crossguard from the upper and lower sides using rivets. As noted above, this construction method is unusual for the given type and is more commonly encountered in swords of the earlier Viking Age, specifically Types D (e.g., C8095) and E (e.g., the sword from Kurgan L-13/1949 in Gnezdovo; Kainov – Novikov 2024: 163-164, Fig. 177). The function of such rivets was to secure the plates to the surface of the crossguard (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý). It cannot be ruled out that the rivet heads may have served a purely decorative function (personal consultation with Tomáš Vlasatý). One such example is the Type E-3 sword from the Norwegian site of Kvakkestad (C17315), featuring a crossguard with round collars on the upper and lower sides, imitating rivet heads (Kainov – Novikov 2024: 189, Fig. 199).
I.4 The Blade
The length of complete preserved blades ranges approximately from 71.5 to 87.5 cm (author’s observation). The blade width of the examined swords (including fragmentary finds), measured below the crossguard, typically reaches 5 to 6 cm; however, in certain specimens, widths of 6.2 to 6.4 cm, or even up to 7 cm, may be encountered. All Petersen Type V sword blades are double-edged (Petersen 1919: 155). Single-edged blades have not been recorded for this type. Of particular interest are two swords from Finland (KM 708, KM 370) which retain complete blades, yet the length of the former reaches only 49.8 cm (Moilanen 2015: 346, Cat. No. [7] KM 708), while the blade of the latter is 55.7 cm long (Moilanen 2015: 346, Cat. No. [5] KM 370). Both specimens are well-preserved, and their shortening appears to have been intentional. The points of the blades are relatively thin, and the fuller terminates just before the shortened point, which was reground (Moilanen 2018: 130). Mikko Moilanen postulates that the reason for such modification may have been an attempt to repair a broken blade, rather than having to reforge and heat-treat it anew; however, the possibility that these were children’s swords or belonged to younger individuals cannot be ruled out (Moilanen 2018: 130; personal communication with Mikko Moilanen). A further example of the modification of a damaged blade can be documented on a fragmentary sword from Olomouc (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2019: 193–194).
Fig. 9. Drawing of swords with shortened blades from Finland.
1. KM 708; 2. KM 370.
Source: Moilanen 2015: 351-352.
Just as blades of other Viking Age sword types were embellished with inscriptions and/or geometric marks, so too is the case with Type V. We can observe inscriptions and/or geometric marks on more than forty blades. By far the most numerous group consists of blades bearing various iterations of the Ulfberht inscription. We also record inscriptions with relatively ambiguous readings, such as +VLEHRAHLDH+ (Moilanen 2015: 397) and ☩ E E E B R H T ☩ (Anteins 1973: Fig. 52). It is hypothesized that these variants may represent imitations of the Ulfberht signature (Moilanen 2015: 137, 150). In one instance, an INGELRII inscription is documented (Moilanen 2015: 378), while another preserves a fragment of an inscription likely belonging to this group (Kainov 2012: 48, 50, Fig. 34). Other recognizable inscription groups on Type V blades include: LEUTLRIT (LEU丄ГRIT) (Mandel 1991: 106-107, Cat. No. 21); CEROLT or GEROLT (Kirpichnikov 1966a: 78-79, Cat. No. 40, Tab. XVII. 2; Korotkevich et al. 2006: 56); AMEN and +IN NOMINE DOMINI+ (Anders 2013: 83, Tab. 1: 1/1; Moilanen 2015: 145-146). In one case, a partial inscription consisting likely of Cyrillic letters – CЛAB (SLAV) – has been preserved, interpreted by Kirpichnikov as part of a name such as Slavuta, Slaviša, Slavomir, etc. (Kirpichnikov 1997: 720, Fig. 1. a, 2).
Alongside inscriptions, we also record geometric marks and/or symbols. A substantial portion of the blades feature a pattern of three vertical lines on the left and right, resembling the Roman numeral III. Centred between these lines is a motif of two vertical bars connected by an elongated letter X – resembling an hourglass -incorporating a rhombus; this motif is defined as a lattice (III lattice III). This occurs in several variants. The appearance of the lattice motif and/or the number of “Roman numerals” may vary; instead of three vertical lines, for example, we have documented blades with only two, or only one on either side. Most frequently, the lattice pattern is combined with the +VLFBERH+T inscription or its other variations. We also record combinations of two geometric marks. On a sword from the Swedish site of Östveda in Gästrikland, we can observe a blade decorated on one side with a geometric motif of two vertical lines on the left and right, flanking a motif of two lattices separated by a single line (II lattice I lattice II); the reverse displays a motif of two lines, again on the left and right, flanking a pattern of two hourglasses separated by a single line (II⋈I⋈II) (Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: Fig. 3.2). Two blades bear a cross motif with T-shaped arms within the fuller. One of these is a sword from Torblå, Ulvik in Vestland, Norway. A. L. Lorange states that a mark made of pattern-welded wire is stamped on one side of the blade, also admitting the possibility of the fuller itself being pattern-welded (Lorange 1889: Tab. III, Fig. 5). The mark consists of two circles with a cross between them (O ☩ O) (Lorange 1889: Tab. III, 5a). In the second instance, a solitary cross appears on the blade of a sword from Skästa in Västmanland, Sweden, positioned in the upper section closer to the crossguard. The material from which it is produced is likely brass (Androshchuk 2014: 456, Cat. No. Vs6). Given the complexity of the subject of blade decoration, I have decided to omit a more detailed description of individual decorative variants for the purposes of this article. All variations of inscriptions and marks are listed in the table.
Fig. 10. Sword from the Swedish site of Skästa, Lillhärad, Västmanland.
Depiction of the cross-shaped mark on the blade.
Source: digitalmuseum.se – Västmanlands läns museum.
Just as with the hilts, organic material has also been preserved on the blades. Most frequently, this consists of remnants of wooden scabbard construction, possibly textile remnants, or even leather. Evidence of wooden scabbard construction on the blade is recorded on approximately 13 of the analyzed swords. In the case of the sword from Ballateare on the Isle of Man, we know that oak wood was used for the scabbard construction, mirroring the material of the grip core (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 68). The scabbard structure consisted of wood, layers of fabric, and leather (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 52). Along with the wooden scabbard cladding, bronze components of the baldric were also preserved (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 54-57, Fig. 34). This system consisted of a bronze loop-shaped distributor, to which three flat bronze triangular mounts were attached (Bersu – Wilson 1966: Pl. XIV A). One mount connected a strap to a bronze fitting located on the scabbard closer to the crossguard (Bersu – Wilson 1966: Pl. XI E). Another fixed a longer shoulder strap, passing through a ring located on the second scabbard fitting and terminating with a similar fitting and ring on the opposite side of the strap (Bersu – Wilson 1966: Pl. XI B, D). The third strap, fitted with a bronze chape terminal, served to regulate the length of the sword belt (Bersu – Wilson 1966: Pl. XI C; Androschuk 2014: 113). Analogical sword belt fittings also originate from the Isle of Man, specifically from the Cronk Moar burial mound, where they were associated with a Petersen Type S sword (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 70-76). This method of scabbard suspension may be related to Carolingian variants, where a trefoil-shaped mount was used instead of a loop distributor (Androschuk 2014: 113).
The sword from Grave No. 30 at Priekuļu Ģūģeri was deposited in a wooden scabbard covered with leather and fabric, as evidenced by the organic material remnants present at the lower part of the blade, where a openwork chape is located (Tomsons 2018: 66). Furthermore, two rivets are discernible on the surface of the blade immediately below the crossguard, likely serving to fasten the metallic components of the baldric (Tomsons 2018: 67, Fig. 33. 2). Scabbard remnants are also recorded on the sword from a destroyed burial mound in Gnezdovo. The best-preserved area is the blade tip, where Kainov documents wood, leather, fur, and probably adhesive remnants, as well as fabric preserving the impression of the chape (Kainov 2012: 53). The blade of the sword from the ship burial mound 15 at Valsgärde, Sweden, has a surface covered with preserved remnants of wood and also leather, which analysis suggests came from cattle (Carlson 2023: 65, Cat. No. S52). It was simultaneously determined that the leather used to cover the sword scabbard was thinner compared to the leather utilized for the wooden cores of the scabbards of the long fighting knives found in graves 12 and 15 (Carlson 2023: 40). Additionally, three smaller leather strips placed horizontally only a few centimeters below the crossguard were preserved on the scabbard surface (Androshchuk 2014: 110, Fig. 64). These strips may have been part of the baldric, and their placement corresponds to the position of the suspension loop (Androshchuk 2014: 110). Fedir Androshchuk further hypothesizes that the sword and scabbard were carried using a strap suspended from the shoulder, a method also attested by some Early Medieval illuminations (Androshchuk 2014: 110). Remnants of wooden scabbard construction have been preserved on two other Swedish specimens (Androshchuk 2014: 79, 375 – Sö35*, 385 – Up33).
In connection with Petersen Type V swords, we also record preserved chapes, which we can identify in eleven instances. These are mentioned below in the Chronology chapter.
Fig. 11. Leather strips from the sword belt preserved on the surface of the sword scabbard from burial mound 15 in Valsgärde.
Source: Pedersen 2014b: Tab. 63. 4a.
II. Decoration of the Pommel and Crossguard
Regarding ornamentation, Petersen Type V swords were predominantly decorated with geometric patterns, and within the type, two fundamental decorative schemes can be distinguished. The first, less frequent, is the so-called chessboard pattern, and the second, and most common, is the stepped pattern, which occurs in two variants. Furthermore, there are specimens with ornamentation that does not conform to the classic type. Decoration could be executed by two primary technical methods: inlay and overlay (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 201: 322). The first method, inlay, involves chiseling grooves into the surface of the artefact, into which a wire of non-ferrous metal is subsequently hammered; the grooves thus correspond to the final motif (Vlasatý 2016a). The wire diameter was typically greater than the groove width, which, after hammering it into the object’s surface, created a uniform metallic coating. The density of the grooves ranges approximately from 10 to about 30 grooves per 1 cm (Môc 2018: 228). In the case of one sword from Finland, the groove count is higher, reaching up to 35 per 1 cm (Moilanen 2015: 256). This decorative method is also characteristic of Type H swords (Môc 2018: 228). The second method, overlay (or plating), involves chiseling grooves into the artefact’s surface at an angle, in a mesh or grid-like fashion, which are then filled with non-ferrous metal wire, with the crucial distinction that the grooves do not correspond to the final visible motif (Vlasatý 2016a).
II. 1 The Chessboard Pattern
This type of ornamentation is less common compared to the stepped pattern but is simultaneously considered the chronologically earlier variant (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322). As the name itself suggests, the decoration is formed by two-coloured metal wire inlay of alternating fields composed of densely arranged rectangular bands of silver and copper wire. This creates a pattern resembling a chessboard, which covers both the crossguard and the pommel.
This pattern is recorded in seven instances. Up to three pieces were found in Northern Germany, specifically Schleswig-Holstein, with one piece originating from the site of Böel and the other two from Hedeby (Geibig 1989: Tab. 6. 1-2; Westphal 2002: Fig. 1.30.10). Two are documented in Sweden, stemming from Birka and an unknown location (Arbman 1940: Tab. 5, 1 a; Androshchuk 2014: 469-470, Cat. No. 28*). It should be noted, however, that the parameters of the sword from the unknown location are identical to the sword from Bj 544, Birka (Androshchuk 2014: 385-386, Cat. No. Up 33). According to Fedir Androshchuk, these are two different swords (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý). A further exemplar featuring this decoration is a water find from France, recovered from the River Loire (Delort 2017-2018: Cat. No. 22), now held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which acquired it in 1955 (Grancsay 1959: 176). A relatively unknown piece originates from Norway (T16983). The sword is a grave find from the site of Være Søndre, in Trøndelag county, and appears not to have been officially published. The Unimus portal of Norway’s university museums states that the sword is closely related to Type X, and its pommel is semicircular; however, it is uncertain whether it is composed of two pieces or only one. Currently, the sword consists of five fragments and is covered in rust. The most interesting element is the pommel. X-ray images reveal that the pommel cap is secured to the upper guard by a U-shaped wedge. An older photograph, no longer available on the Unimus portal, clearly showed the chessboard decoration on the upper guard and crossguard, as well as an indication of the pommel division in the form of a faint groove on the better-preserved side of the pommel cap. The pattern differs slightly on the last two mentioned swords. The chessboard fields are composed of larger rectangles compared to the other cited pieces.
The crossguards of the swords from Birka and Böel are decorated on their top and bottom surfaces with two-coloured inlay – interlaced silver and copper wires creating a zigzag pattern. Simultaneously, silver twisted wire, wrapped around the edge along its entire length, is preserved on the crossguards of these swords (Arbman 1940: Tab. 5, 1 b; Müller – Wille 1977: 64, Fig. 18. 2 a-c).
The chessboard pattern is also known from sword types other than Petersen Type V. It is found on Type H from Wesness in Orkney (Żabiński 2007: 41, Fig. 7-8) or on Type P from Nærland in Rogaland, Norway (S2057).
II. 2 The Stepped Pattern
This type of ornamentation represents one of the characteristic features of the investigated sword type. The overwhelming majority of finds feature a pommel and crossguard decorated with this specific motif. The pattern consists of alternating stepped triangles filled with white metal and rhomboids constructed from twisted strands of red-and-white or yellow metal, bordered by red. The pattern is consistently applied vertically. On the pommel cap, the triangles are situated in its lower section. Between them runs the first row of rhomboids (made of red-and-white or yellow metal), which alternate with a subsequent row of rhomboids crafted from silver. The lateral lobes are decorated with the motif known as Kulakov’s flags, which will be discussed in detail at the end of this chapter. The decoration of the upper guard and crossguard is formed by vertically disposed triangles along the upper and lower edges, with their points directed towards each other. The central field creates a rhomboid motif.
The pattern, however, is not uniform; on the contrary, it exhibits variations. Differences are evident not only in the pattern itself but also in the shape of the triangles and rhomboids. These elements may be narrower and elongated, applied densely side-by-side in a row, or they may be shorter and wider with greater spacing between them. This variability may depend on both the quantity and the thickness of the wire utilized. These differences are most discernible in the silver triangles, as silver is the most common non-ferrous metal to survive on the surface of the crossguards and pommels. We can thus observe that the fields of some triangles were filled with five rods of wire, a feature present in 16 exemplars; a filling of three wires was recorded in six specimens; six wires in four specimens; nine wires in two specimens; and single instances show filling with seven and eight wires (author’s observation). The number of wires used to fill the rhomboids should correspond to this arrangement, which was observable on some swords where the metallic inlay of the rhomboids was relatively well preserved.
An interesting find is the sword recovered from the waters of the Dnieper River on Khortytsia Island in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine (Fig. 13). The pommel features an inlay of thinner wire, where five strands of wire were used to fill a single field of the triangles and rhomboids (Ostapenko – Sarychev 2016: Fig. 12). The sword’s crossguard is decorated with thicker wire, resulting in a more robust pattern with greater spacing between the triangles and rhomboids (Ostapenko – Sarychev 2016: 56, Fig. 11). The pattern adorning the crossguard of the Khortytsia Island sword is also known from other finds, particularly those from the Old Rus’ environment (Kainov 2012: Fig. 34; Eidel 2022: 37).
In the case of the Finnish finds, Mikko Moilanen records four swords where the stepped decoration could be identified. Two of these have an average of 26 wires per 1 cm, and the other two have 25 and 28 wires per 1 cm, respectively (Moilanen 2015: 255-256). In the Old Rus’ context, we record swords with a wire density of 24 wires per 1 cm (Kainov 2012: 50) as well as 30 wires per 1 cm (Kainov 2012: 44; Makarov 2023: 59). Swords from the Swedish sites of Enköping and Östveda have a wire density of 14 and 19 wires per 1 centimetre (Androshchuk 2014: 335, Cat. Nos. Gä 28*, Up 99*).
Regarding the appearance of the motif itself, two variants can be distinguished. The inlay is a combination of two- or three-coloured wires (white and red, or white, red, and yellow).
The first and most widespread variant is a combination of two-coloured inlay, consisting of triangles made of white metal bordered by red metal wire, and the inner field of the rhomboids is filled with twisted strands of white and red metal resembling filigree (Môc 2018: 224) (Fig. 12). The most frequent combination involves silver and copper wire (e.g., Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen 1995: 41; Kainov 2012: Fig. 34. 3). We also record the use of silver with bronze (Moilanen 2015: 365, 378, 418). In one instance, a combination of silver with a copper alloy, possibly brass, is presumed (Makarov 2023: 59, Fig. 4, 7). This method of ornamentation is documented on approximately 20 exemplars (author’s observation). Such decoration was most likely also present on the crossguard and pommel of the sword from Seierstad Østre, Larvik in Vestfold, Norway (C20955). The sword is labeled on the Unimus portal as Rygh Type 492, or Petersen Type E (Rygh 1885; Petersen 1919: 75, 89). Neither the drawing nor the photographs available on the portal clearly indicate that the hilt components were decorated with the pitted/dimpled decoration (characteristic of Type E). The preserved stepped decoration on the sword points unequivocally to Type V. The use of two-coloured twisted wires is also found on some Type T2 swords, such as the one from the Slovak site of Košice – Krásna nad Hornádom (Môc 2018: 223-224; personal communication with Radoslav Čambal; SNM photo archive) or from Utgården in Telemark, Norway (C1648), and we even record it in conjunction with the stepped motif on Type H/I, which will be mentioned below.
Fig. 12. Hilt of a sword from burial mound 11 at Wiskauten, East Prussia (left), and a detail of the decoration (right).
Source: Jahn – Ibsen 2024: Fig. 18, 20.
The second variant of the decoration is characterized by two rows of triangles made of white metal, bordered by a narrow strip of red metal, with the central rhomboid field being filled with yellow metal wire. The combination of coloured wires has been identified as silver, copper, and brass. Compared to the preceding decorative variant, this one is less numerous. It can be documented on approximately six exemplars (Kirpichnikov 1992: Cat. No. 2; Plavinski 2009: 15; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Vs 6; Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 92; Ostapenko – Sarychev 2016: 58, Fig. 6; Eidel 2022: 37) (Fig. 13). The use of a three-colour combination is also cited for the pommel from the Gnezdovo Kurgan C-20, which features a presumed stepped motif (Kainov 2012: 42, 44). It appears that the pommel and crossguard of the sword from Rösta may have been similarly decorated. Fedir Androshchuk states that the sword retains remnants of silver and copper inlay (Androshchuk 2014: 356, Cat. No. Jä 12*). Upon closer inspection of the pommel in the photograph within the SHM catalogue, it is evident that the inlaid wire appears yellow in some places and red/orange in others. The same can be observed on the sword from Torblå Ulvik. According to the Unimus portal, the decoration consists of silver and copper. However, upon closer viewing of one side of the pommel, an inlay of yellow metal is also visible alongside the silver and copper wires. Norway has yielded another notable specimen featuring polychrome decoration in a stepped motif. This find, consisting of a fragmentary blade encased within a wooden scabbard core and a preserved cross-guard, was discovered in August 2016 at Våg, Dønna, in Nordland (T27354). The cross-guard retains a decorative scheme of alternating triangles and rhombuses, delimited by a narrow band of red metal. The internal fields of the rhombic cells are inlaid with a yellow metal, tentatively identified as brass. Wires made of silver, copper, and brass are also found on the crossguard and pommel of the sword from the vicinity of Sliven (Zlatkov 2014: 138-139), though reconstructing the original pattern is currently impossible due to the fragmentary nature of the find.
Following a recent revision, a three-colour decorative scheme utilizing silver, copper, and brass has also been documented on the cross-guard of a sword from Semenovka, Russia (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 228, Fig. 3. 2 a–b) and on a sword from the Cherkasy region in Ukraine (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 239, Fig. 6. 4)
Fig. 13. Hilt of a sword from the waters of the Dnieper River on Khortytsia Island, featuring a different decorative method in the stepped pattern on the crossguard and pommel, along with a decoration scheme.
1 – silver, 2 – brass, 3 – copper.
Source: Makarov 2023: Fig. 8. A.
In addition to Type V swords, the pattern of stepped triangles and rhomboids can also be encountered on certain exemplars of Type H/I. Geometric patterns of various forms, including stepped rhomboids, were executed on this type using silver and copper wires or covered with an inlay of white, red, and yellow wires (Androshchuk 2014: 56-57; Kainov – Novikov 2024: 212, Fig. 213. 2; 214. 1, 2, 4; 215. 1, 5). Alfred Geibig, however, notes that the stepped decorative variant of combination type 5 (Petersen H) is less frequent compared to the type we are examining (Geibig 1999: 37). We succeeded in documenting it on three exemplars, two of which originate from Sweden: one from the site of Norra Kvinneby in Öland province (SHM16646) and the second being a grave find from Grave 561 in Birka (SHM34000:561). The third was found in Norway, at the site of Nes, Nord-Aurdal in Innlandet county (C23127). Alongside these exemplars stand several others which preserved this decorative variant on the crossguard and/or upper guard but lack the preserved pommel/cap, and are designated in the literature as Type V or H/I. Mikko Moilanen records two Finnish Type V swords lacking a preserved pommel cap but featuring the stepped pattern on the crossguard and upper guard from the sites of Kangasala (KM 6245 A:1) and Tampere (KM 15175:1) (Moilanen 2015: 378, 407). The third is, in his opinion, a possible Type V originating from Jämsä (KM 31550:1), with a preserved rhomboid pattern of silver and bronze (Moilanen 2015: 418). Two further such exemplars originate from Sweden, from the sites of Hangvar in Austers parish (SHM 2309) on Gotland Island and Skensta, in Torstuna parish in Uppland (SHM 6814). The former is preserved with an incomplete blade and crossguard which partially retains the stepped pattern with twisted wires in the centre of the motif (Fig. 14). The decoration is believed to have been made of silver and copper, while the sword components are classified as Type H/I (Thunmark-Nylén 2000: 354; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Go 67*). The latter consists only of the crossguard and upper guard with traces of silver and copper wire decoration, also attributed to Type H/I (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up 203*). From the photographs published on the SHM portal, which were taken for the purpose of this article by curator Sven Kalmring, the preserved decoration of silver stepped triangles is partially discernible (Fig. 15).
Similarly situated is the fragmentary sword from Rolighet in Vestfold county, Norway (C14139). Despite the absence of the pommel cap, it is assigned to Rygh Type 494, which corresponds to the H variant in Petersen’s classification (Rygh 1885; Petersen 1919: 75, 89). Photographs and a drawing on the portal indicate that the sword’s ornamentation consists of silver wires in a stepped pattern. The pommel of a fragmentary sword from the site of Nesna in Nordland county, Northern Norway (T14487), is also alleged to feature stepped bronze decoration. According to the Unimus portal information, it is believed to be made of a single piece, and morphologically, it is an older variant of Type H, closely resembling Types T and V pommels. Anne Stalsberg and A. N. Kirpichnikov classify the sword as Type H (Kirpitsjnikov – Stalsberg 1992: 35, Fig. 3). It is preserved only with an incomplete blade, crossguard, and pommel. Despite its condition, the pommel is two-part, yet the pommel cap does not appear to be triangular; rather, it seems semicircular. Vertical grooves are visible on the crossguard in the Unimus portal photographs, which were previously filled with non-ferrous metal wires. This is confirmed by A. Stalsberg and A. N. Kirpichnikov, who also note that the decoration was probably geometric, similar to the sword from Lyngjem, which they designate as Type V (Kirpitsjnikov – Stalsberg 1992: 37). One more sword whose find circumstances are uncertain is believed to originate from Kyiv (в 329). Only a fragment of the blade with the tang and crossguard has survived (Kirpichnikov 1997: Fig. 1). According to Anatoliy Kirpichnikov, a remnant of decoration made of twisted red copper and silver wires is preserved on the crossguard, and he classified the sword as a possible Type V (Kirpichnikov 1997: 717, 719). In the work of F. Androshchuk and V. Zotsenko, the sword is attributed to Type H with ornamentation of yellow and red wire, but in the chessboard pattern (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 320).
Beyond swords, this decorative method is also encountered on the sockets of spearheads of Types E, G, I, and K (Thunmark-Nylén 1998: Tab. 238: 1, 2, 3; Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 8. 2; Sénby Posse 2021: Figs. 22, 71).
From a symbolic perspective, the stepped pattern of alternating triangles and rhomboids could be related to the depiction of the zigzag bicoloured line found on the back of the common European viper (Vipera berus) (Brunning 2015: 60-61, Fig. 2.1; Lehmann 2017: 277). The association of swords generally with serpents was not unusual in Old Norse thought. The comparison of these elite military artefacts to snakes can also be documented in Old Norse literature (Brunning 2015: 53; Vlasatý 2022a).
Fig. 14. Fragmentary sword from Hangvar, Gotland, with remnants of the stepped pattern decoration on the crossguard.
Source: SHM Stockholm, photo: Sven Kalmring.
Fig. 15. Upper guard and crossguard of the sword from the Swedish site of Skensta, Uppland.
Source: SHM Stockholm, photo: Sven Kalmring.
II. 3 Atypical Forms of Decoration on Petersen Type V Swords
In addition to the aforementioned decorative variants, several atypical forms of ornamentation are known on Type V swords that do not conform to Petersen’s typological classification criteria.
One such instance is the sword from Hedeby harbour, whose decoration can essentially be compared to the stepped pattern. It features a stepped zigzag pattern placed vertically along the entire length of the crossguard and pommel, composed of alternating silver and copper wires (Geibig 1999: 36, Tab. 6. 2-3). The decoration also extends to the underside of the upper guard with two interwoven lines of bands in the shape of the letter X, made of twisted silver wires at both terminals. This arrangement creates triangles and a rhombus with a dotted silver filling (Geibig 1999: 36-37, Tab. 6. 3). The crossguard is covered along its entire top and bottom edges with the same dotted silver decoration as the upper guard. This style of ornamentation is most frequently encountered on Petersen Type R swords, where it is combined with an interlace motif in the Mammen style, executed using fine inlay, predominantly in silver (Hergesell – Snítilý 2020: 41; personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý).
The sword from Osted in København county, Denmark, preserves decoration on the central lobe and a small fragment on the upper guard and one side of the crossguard, made of twisted silver wires that form a “zigzag” pattern (Crumlin-Pedersen 1981: 65, D12-3; Peirce 2002: 113). This is identical to the ornamentation on the bottom and top edges of the crossguards of the swords from Birka (BJ 544) and Böel, whose decoration consisted of silver and copper. Hence, it can be presumed that the pommel and crossguard of this exemplar were decorated with twisted wires of white and red non-ferrous metal to achieve a contrasting effect. According to Ian Peirce, this context-less find is Type U (Peirce 2002: 112). Fedir Androshchuk, however, classifies it as Type V (Androshchuk 2014: 278, Cat. No. 41), although elsewhere he notes that Type U swords lack clearly defined criteria, and in some cases, Type V swords have been incorrectly assigned to this type (Androshchuk 2014: 78).
The decoration of the sword from Pidhirci (Fig. 16) represents a unique case within the investigated type. Morphologically, its hilt components exhibit traits characteristic of Type V, yet the decoration is closely affiliated with Petersen Type S swords, particularly that applied to the surface of the crossguard. The pattern consists of an interlace motif featuring knots. The upper and lower edges of the crossguard are bordered by a long horizontal row of densely arranged silver “arrowheads” (⋘) with points directed to the left, set against a copper background. The same border decoration is found on the upper guard. Horizontally placed interlaced silver bands run through the centre. The decoration of the pommel cap is not completely preserved, being only fragmentary, but it can be presumed that the motif consisted of various interwoven lines and volutes (?). The decoration was likely created by overlay using silver and copper wires (Liwoch 2005: 52-54). The sword appears to be a hybrid type. The find of a Type U sword from the Norwegian site of Bakke, Ullensvang in Vestland (B4486) in Western Norway, could be viewed similarly. Its pommel preserves engraved groove decoration representing an interlace motif on the upper guard, similar to that on Type S.
Fig. 16. Decoration of the structural components of the sword hilt from Pidhirci.
Source: Wirtualne Muzea Małopolski.
We can also document monochromatic decoration within the investigated type. One such find is a sword from the Norwegian site of Storbjørken Nedre in Trøndelag county (T17462). The decoration on the crossguard and pommel is alleged to consist exclusively of vertical silver inlay, as indicated by the Unimus portal. The sword originating from the site of Munkeby, Levanger, Trøndelag county, Norway (T18704), appears to be a possible Type V with monochromatic decoration. Based on information from the Unimus portal, this sword is closely related to Petersen Types W and X, featuring a pommel made of a single piece with grooves dividing the hilt into an upper guard and a trilobate pommel cap. The pommel and crossguard are covered with engraved grooves that were filled with yellow non-ferrous metal. However, in one of the photographs published on the portal, two circular grooves can be noticed on the underside of the upper guard. It cannot, therefore, be ruled out that the pommel may have been manufactured from two pieces joined by rivets. Two Type V swords with monochromatic decoration are also believed to originate from Gnezdovo (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322). Sergei Kainov records remnants of silver decoration only on the pommel of a fragmentary sword from Kurgan Dn-86 (Kainov 2012: 45-46, Fig. 32). The remaining three swords preserve polychromatic decoration (Kainov 2012: 42, 44-54). Monochromatic cladding of the iron surface of hilt components (silver, bronze/copper, brass) is known primarily on Petersen Type H/I swords (Androshchuk 2014: 56; Môc 2018: 228). As this kind of “decoration” did not create any specific pattern but rather covered the entire surface of the pommels and crossguards with a continuous inlay of wires made of a single type of non-ferrous metal, its function may have primarily been to protect the iron surface from corrosion (Môc 2018: 228).
To conclude the chapter, I would like to briefly address the decoration of the lateral pommel segments. The central pattern in almost all analyzed cases is formed by a triangle-like motif in red metal, with a differing number of vertically placed lines beneath it, separated by a gap composed of a silver inlay. A long vertical line with two projections on the upper and lower sides passes through the wider part of this motif. The remaining areas of the lateral segments are decorated differently, and in no case is the decoration repeated. The ornamentation could be better identified on approximately fifteen exemplars out of all preserved pommels. Vladimir Kulakov considers this symbol to be a signification of flags (Kulakov 1989: 69). With a degree of interpretation, this pattern may resemble a battle standard with tassels affixed to a wooden spear shaft. Similar variations of these “flags” can also be recognized on some Type T2 swords (C1648).
Fig. 17. Example of the decoration of the lateral segments (of the pommel) and an ornament scheme.
1 – silver, 2 – brass, 3 – copper.
Source: Makarov 2023: Fig. 8.A; Ostapenko – Sarychev 2016: Figs. 11-13.
Fig. 18. Graphic representation of several decorative variants on the crossguards and pommels of Petersen Type V swords.
a. Khortytsia; b. Storbjørken Nedre; 1. Wiskiauten 11/1897; 2. Shestovytsia; 3. Gnezdovo, destroyed mound; 4. Gnezdovo, Kurgan Dn-4; 5. Oppdal; 6.–7. Khortytsia; 8. Hedeby, harbour; 9. Osted; 10. Birka, BJ 544; 11. Pidhirci.
Illustrations by: Diego Flores Cartes (a–b, 11); Michal Viskupič (1–10).
III. Relationship between Types V and T2
Swords of Type V and Type T2 are in close proximity in terms of their morphological and decorative attributes. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Sergei Kainov, several criteria exist by which these types can be differentiated (Kainov 2012: 41-42). One criterion is the shape of the pommel, which was discussed in Section I.1; the second primary differentiator is the decoration itself. While the decoration on the type under investigation (V) is applied vertically, Type T2 features decoration placed horizontally at both terminals of the upper guard and crossguard, transitioning to a vertical arrangement only in the centre. A further distinction lies in the shape of the motif: the triangles and rhomboids are not stepped, but possess straight edges. The only known exception is a sword from Gnezdovo, originating from a destroyed mound, whose motif arrangement clearly points to Type T2, yet in this specific case, the rhomboids and triangles are stepped (Kainov 2012: 35, 37, 39-41, Figs. 29-30).
However, swords featuring decoration arranged exclusively vertically can also be encountered. One such example comes from Khortytsia Island, and another from the Russian site of Vakhrusheva in Southeastern Ladoga Region (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Tab. V. 3, VII. 3 – Tab. VIII description). According to the research collective Maczek, Môc, Dvorák, and Beronská, the pommel shape of the Vakhrusheva sword exhibits more characteristics typical of Type V – the upper edge of the pommel cap is more oval, and the lateral segments are not markedly concave. They suggest that the sword may represent a hybrid type or a transitional variant (Maczek et al. 2024: 294). They similarly view the sword from the Black Grave (Chorna mohyla) as a potential transitional variant, asserting that its assignment to Type T2 appears uncertain (Maczek et al. 2024: 294). Jiří Košta also registers this sword as a possible Type T or V (Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 3163). In older literature, it is labeled as Type T2 (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. No. 41; Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 288, Fig. 222), a classification with which Sergei Kainov concurs based on morphological and ornamental elements (personal communication with Sergei Kainov).
Another potential Type V or T2, or transitional variant, is the sword from the Russian site of Leonovo in the Leningrad Oblast, which is preserved only with the blade, tang, and crossguard (Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 2320; Maczek et al. 2024: 293). Anatoliy Kirpichnikov originally classified the sword as Type T2 (Kirpichnikov 1966a: 78, Cat. No. 39) but later designated it as a possible Type V or T2 (Kochkurkina – Summanen 2021: 252). The decoration on the crossguard is segmented into horizontal triangles and rhomboids on the sides and vertically arranged motifs in the centre, which clearly points to Type T2 (Kochkurkina – Summanen 2021: 252, Fig. 2. 1-3). Likewise, the hilt of the sword from Øvrebø in Telemark, Norway (C17958), was decorated with vertical ornamentation (Petersen 1919: 151).
At this juncture, it is appropriate to mention a sword from an unknown Swedish location, preserved with an incomplete blade, crossguard, and upper guard but lacking the pommel cap. It is registered in the catalogue of the Statens historiska museer (SHM) in Stockholm only under item number 266352_HST (personal communication with Ny Björn Gustafsson; Vlasatý 2022b). The decoration is best preserved on the crossguard and consists of silver triangles and brass rhomboids, separated by a thin copper wire. The ornamentation runs vertically along the entire crossguard, placing it closer to Type V. However, the shape of the triangles and rhomboids is not stepped but features straight edges, similar to the Vakhrusheva exemplar, which in turn brings the decoration closer to Type T2. It may be added that the top and bottom surfaces of the crossguard clearly exhibit stepped decoration consisting of silver, copper, and brass wires. Sue Brunning mentions the discussed sword as Petersen Type H and interprets the crossguard decoration as a possible depiction of a snake’s back (Brunning 2015: 61-62, Fig. 2.3). The absence of the pommel cap prevents a precise attribution of the sword to either type. Fedir Androshchuk considers this sword to be a younger variant of Type H/I (Vlasatý 2022b).
IV. Distribution
Petersen Type V swords exhibit a relatively broad representation across Europe, with concentrations primarily in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. While several specimens are documented in Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe, they appear to be entirely absent from Southern Europe.
Whereas Mikael Jakobsson recorded only 35 specimens (Jakobsson 1992: 41, Table 2), Kainov identifies 56 finds across Europe, supplemented by an additional 25 from the Old Rus’ milieu (Kainov 2012: 42). Currently, the total assemblage is estimated at approximately 120 units (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322), though the actual number is likely significantly higher. Factors such as unpublished finds and artefacts recovered through illicit metal detecting must be taken into account. The corpus presented in this study exceeds 120 specimens, including those with uncertain typological attribution.
Historical Denmark is considered the probable place of origin for this type, where the variant likely evolved through the imitation of Late Carolingian swords featuring trilobate pommels (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 323). Mechtild Schulze-Dörrlamm suggests that these swords were utilized in regions inhabited by Danes or Obotrites, as well as in territories under their control along the western and southern coasts of the Baltic Sea (Schulze-Dörrlamm 2014: 617). This correlates with finds from Schleswig-Holstein, specifically Hedeby, which has yielded four specimens: one from inhumation Grave 62 (Arents – Eisenschmidt 2010: 41, Tab. 10. 1 a-b), the Hedeby North 1836 find (Geibig 1989: 254, Cat. No. 27, Tab. 6. 1; Pedersen 2014b: 129, Cat. No. 368), a settlement/harbour find (Geibig 1999: 58, Tab. 6.1), and a pommel cap featuring three-colour inlay (Geibig 1989: 254, Cat. No. 29, Tab. 1. 3). Two additional swords were discovered northeast of Hedeby at Böel (Müller – Wille 1977: 64, Fig. 6. 1 a-c) and Süderbrarup (Müller – Wille 1977: 64, Fig. 5. 11 a-c).
From the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern comes a sword recovered from the Peene River in Demmin, which Peter Herfert initially designated as Petersen Type X (Herfert 1977: 248, 250) – a classification that is untenable. The pommel consists of an upper guard and a semicircular pommel cap joined by rivets; both the pommel and crossguard are decorated with silver and copper wire, presumably in a stepped pattern (Herfert 1978: 251, Fig. 2. a-b). Two swords of the type under consideration originate from the state of Brandenburg. One of these is a find discovered in 1905 by a master carpenter in a bog at the Kiebitzbruch site near the village of Göritz in the Uckermark region (Raddatz 1936: 157). While some authors have classified the sword as Petersen Type E (Schoknecht 1988: 145, Cat. No. 3), others have favoured an attribution to Type V (Biermann 2015: 162). This sword, featuring an incomplete blade and a pattern-welded fuller, has been preserved with all structural components of the hilt, which are embellished with a triangular-rhomboid motif executed in silver and copper wire (Raddatz 1936: Fig. 1; Biermann 2015: 162). The second find consists of a trilobate pommel cap with extant rhomboid decoration in silver and copper, discovered at the site of a Slavic hillfort near Melzow, also in the Uckermark region (Biermann 2015: 161–162, Figs. 9. 2, 10. 2, 11).
Another putative Type V find from Germany originates from the Weser River bed near Großenwieden in Lower Saxony (Wulf 2015: 155). This sword is relatively well-preserved, despite a missing portion of the straight crossguard, and notably retains a leather strap on the pommel and guard (Wulf 2015: 158-159, Fig. 5). The pommel is two-part, featuring a straight upper guard and a semicircular pommel cap, which, in addition to the leather strips, preserves traces of tin-lead alloy plating and animal hair (Meier 2015: 172; Wulf 2015: 159;). Radiography revealed that the upper guard and pommel cap are secured by a U-shaped wedge (Meier 2015: 174, Fig. 8), though the cap does not appear to be divided into three segments. Friedrich W. Wulf assigned the sword to Geibig’s Combination Type 11, while stating elsewhere that the Großenwieden find represents the first Type V sword on German soil (Wulf 2015: 159, 164). However, the morphology of the crossguard and pommel aligns more closely with Type N.
Approximately six swords originate from modern-day Denmark, found across the islands of Lolland (Errindlev and Hoby; Pedersen 2014b: Cat. Nos. 92, 95), Sjælland (Osted and Jørlunde; Crumlin-Pedersen 1981: 65, D12-3; Peirce 2002: 112; Pedersen 2010: 318, Cat. No. 2), and Langeland (Stengade I, Grave 3; Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 132). One specimen is recorded on the Jutland peninsula at Kammerhøj (Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 173). Three additional swords of uncertain typology also stem from Jutland. Two are cited as grave finds from Farsø and Fly (Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 179, Pl. 24. 2, 194, Pl. 26. 3), which J. Brøndsted considered Type X (Brøndsted 1936: 93-94, 110). Radiography of the Farsø sword indicates a two-part pommel, suggesting a possible link to the investigated type (Pedersen 2014a: 161). A third uncertain Type V originates from Lamhøj, Låstrup; F. Androshchuk considers it Type V, whereas J. Brøndsted and A. Pedersen classify it as Type X (Androshchuk 2014: 277, Cat. No. 16; Pedersen 2014b: 129, Cat. No. 216, Pl. 30. 3). An uncertain Type V, according to Androshchuk, also comes from Vantore Storesø on Lolland (Androshchuk 2014: 279, List 3, No. 53; Pedersen 2014a: 256, note 18).
Finally, two specimens attributed to multiple types in the literature deserve mention. Androshchuk identifies a sword from Næstelsø as a definite Type V (Androshchuk 2014: 278, No. 40), while A. Pedersen regards it as Type X (Pedersen 2014b: 128, Cat. No. 81, Pl. 8. 1). Although the crossguard is relatively short, the semicircular pommel appears to be single-piece (Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 8.1). From Longelse, A. Pedersen identifies a sword as potentially Type V or W (Pedersen 2014b: 128, Cat. No. 142, Pl. 19. 1), whereas Androshchuk suggests Type V or X (Androshchuk 2014: 279, List 3, No. 49). Morphologically, the hilt components lean toward Type X. As Fedir Androshchuk observes, Type V swords, along with Types S and X, are among the most prevalent types within historical Denmark (including Schleswig-Holstein and Skåne), where Type V accounts for up to 24% of the total sword assemblage (Androshchuk 2014: Fig. 96, Table VII.2).
Fig. 19. Grave finds of Type V swords from the territory of Denmark.
1. Errindlev; 2. Hoby; 3. Stengade I; 4. Kammerhøj.
Source: Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 9. 1-1a, 10. 2-2a, 13. 3-3a, 22. 1-1a.
According to Charlotte Blindheim, certain Norwegian specimens may have been manufactured in smithing workshops within Norway, or perhaps represent the output of a single specific workshop (Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen – Ingstad 1999: 84, 87). The highest concentration of Type V swords is primarily located in Western and Southwestern Norway, specifically in the counties of Vestland, Rogaland, Møre og Romsdal, and Hordaland, where Jan Petersen recorded only six finds (Petersen 1919: 155; Torblå, Ulvik – B2799, Gauttun, Suldal – B4346, Skodje Nedre, Ålesund – B4347, Stamnes, Burvik – B4830, Østabø, Vindafjord – S2266, Auglend, Sandens – S2389). At present, the corpus is significantly larger, with discoveries also emerging from Trøndelag, Telemark, and Vestfold. Including those listed by Petersen, the Unimus portal registers an additional ten finds classified under Type V (Brekke, Høyanger – B8118, Njåstad, Osterøy – B7667, Gjemmestad, Gloppen – B11390, unknown place / Kyrkeide, Stryn – B5646, Raudemel-Tomasgarden – B13374, Kaupang – C57066, Ballestad, Skien – C35841, Opdal Prestegård, Oppdal – T21339, Storbjørken Nedre, Steinkjer – T17462, Sand, Suldal – S6801). Eva Moberg records one specimen (B5646) from Kyrkeide, Stryn, as an uncertain Type V (Moberg 1992: 101); conversely, Unimus categorizes it as a definitive Type V, albeit with an unknown provenance. To these swords, we can add two more that undoubtedly belong to the investigated type. From Møre og Romsdal county comes a sword discovered at the site of Lyngjem (T16143), which Unimus classifies as Type H, but Anatoliy Kirpichnikov and Anne Stalsberg identify as Type V. The drawing published in their work, as well as the photograph available on the Unimus portal, clearly demonstrate that the two-part pommel has a cap divided into three segments (Kirpitsjnikov – Stalsberg 1992: Fig. 2b). They simultaneously note that the structural components of the hilt retain grooves that were previously filled with metal, likely forming a geometric pattern (Kirpitsjnikov – Stalsberg 1992: 35). The second is a grave find from Trøndelag county, at the site of Valan, Levanger (T922), which, although lacks a precise typological classification according to the Unimus portal, can be assumed to belong to the studied type given its two-part pommel with a trilobate cap and the oblique chamfering of the lateral parts of the upper guard. It was likely unpublished, and the portal provides information regarding silver decoration on the hilt components.
Including the three exemplars mentioned above in the Decoration chapter (C20955, T16983, T27354), the total number of Petersen Type V swords from Norway stands at 21 specimens based on our observations. Two additional swords from Trøndelag county – Fjermstad, Trondheim (T18931) and Bosnes, Inderøy (T12113) – are considered potential Type V candidates. The former was likely also unpublished, and according to Unimus, it is close to Type T with decoration similar to Types H/I. However, in this case, the central lobe of the pommel cap is markedly oval, as pointed out by Unimus, suggesting the sword may be closer to Type V. Regarding the second sword, the Unimus portal informs us that the pommel is single-piece and similar to Petersen’s Special Type 1 from Steinsvik (Petersen 1919: 65, Fig. 56; C20317). According to the portal, the sword was found with a Type R518 spearhead (T12113/b.002), which Bergljot Solberg interprets as her Type VI.1B (Solberg 1984: 231), corresponding to Petersen Type B, dated between 750–825/850 (Solberg 1984: 52; Vlasatý 2014). Other sources interpret the sword as Type V (Stalsberg 2008; Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 1624). To these two, we can add a further seven described briefly in the first and second chapters (C17404, T18704, C14139, C4979, C5593, T14487, T16338). The number of swords that could potentially belong to the studied type is thus nine specimens.
As a brief commentary, we wish to address the aforementioned sword with inventory number B4346 from Gauttun (Gautetun) Suldal, Rogaland county (Petersen 1919: 155). Unimus records two swords under a single inventory number (B4346b, B4346c). The first is stated to be a double-edged sword of Type K or O in several fragments with silver inlay on the crossguard and upper guard. The second is designated as Type V. Curiously, it is described as single-edged with an unusually long blade and a curved upper guard and crossguard (?). Jan Petersen does not mention the sword having a single-edged blade, which raises the question of whether there was a transposition of descriptions on the portal, mistakenly assigned to the wrong inventory numbers, or a faulty typological classification. From the photographs kindly prepared for this article by Melanie Wrigglesworth of the University Museum in Bergen, it appears that the single-edged sword listed under inv. no. B4346c is in such a fragmentary state that its typological classification is practically impossible. The crossguard indeed appears slightly curved, with the edges directed toward the blade, which could theoretically allow this exemplar to be assigned to Type P or Q, as some Norwegian swords of these types feature single-edged blades (Androshchuk 2014: 73). Alternatively, it might belong to Type M, which in some cases (C23112/a, C24901/a) possesses slightly curved guards and similarly features single-edged blades (Vlasatý 2019b). In the second case, the crossguard is preserved with a fragment of the blade and tang, along with a two-part pommel divided into three segments and traces of silver stepped pattern decoration (Fig. 21). The division of the cap is also discernible thanks to twisted wires.
Fig. 20. Crossguard and pommel of the sword from Gauttun.
Source: Photograph prepared for this article by Melanie Wrigglesworth, University Museum of Bergen.
According to Fedir Androshchuk, 16 specimens of Type V swords originate from Sweden (Androshchuk 2014: 257), with four exemplars recorded in the province of Uppland in the east. Two originate from chamber graves in Birka (524, 544), and an additional two from boat inhumation graves 12 and 15 in Valsgärde (Arbman 1943: 160; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up33, 114, 117). Androshchuk initially identified the sword from Birka Grave 524 as Type E with pitted decoration (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up31*) and attributed the Type V sword to Grave 581 (Androshchuk 2014: 386, Cat. No. Up 35*). However, recent reassessments of the inventory from Grave 581 suggest that the sword with pitted decoration actually belongs to that burial (Wåhlander 2023: 120-121; Vlasatý 2022b). Consequently, Grave 524 is the true source of the Type V sword, currently fragmented into several items registered by the State Historical Museum in Stockholm (SHM) as follows: 557088_HST (wooden scabbard and blade fragments), 556938_HST (wooden hilt scales), and 556935_HST (pommel). This aligns with the earlier description provided by Holger Arbman (Arbman 1943: 160; personal communication with Sven Kalmring). Arbman’s work also includes a drawing by Olof Sörling, where the division of the cap is not visible, yet the semicircular pommel with chamfered lateral edges of the upper guard is clearly discernible (Arbman 1940: Tab. 3. 4). Three further swords from Uppland are registered as uncertain Type V candidates. One is a find from Enköping (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up 99*; Pl. 143). The second was found in Norsta, Balingsta parish (SHM 4196) (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up 69*); although the SHM catalogue includes a drawing and photograph showing a lens-shaped crossguard, the pommel is depicted as single-piece in the drawing, even if the photograph suggests a two-part construction. The third potential Type V from Uppland is the previously mentioned find of a crossguard and upper guard from Skensta.
In the province of Gästrikland, three swords are recorded. Two definitively belong to the studied type: Hedesunda, Östveda parish (SHM 11422) (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Gä28*) and Hemlingby, Valbo parish (SHM19802:3) (Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: Cat. No. 7, Fig. 1.3). The third is a Type E or V sword from Norra Åbyggeby, Hille parish (SHM 18780:2a) (Androshchuk 2014: 341-342, Cat. No. Gä50). Similarly, three swords are known from Småland, one of which is reportedly in a foreign collection (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Sm 33), while the second is a field find near Ljungby (SHM 7733) (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Sm11). According to Sven Kalmring, the Ljungby specimen is no longer in the SHM database despite past registration. The third was recovered from the Emån River at Markestad, Höreda parish (JM.12987) (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Sm5). In the southern province of Skåne, only two exemplars are recorded (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. Nos. Sk14*, 18*). In Jämtland, two swords are documented: one definitively of the studied type from Rösta, Ås parish (SHM12426:IV), and a second uncertain candidate from the wilderness of Dalsvallen, Undersåker parish (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. Nos. Jä12*, Jä 9). Anders Hansson originally classified the Dalsvallen sword (JLM 29639) as Type H (Hansson 1994: 4, Fig. 4), which is typologically incorrect given its semicircular pommel, as noted by Androshchuk. Two swords are also registered in Västmanland from Hedensberg, Tillberga parish (Androshchuk 2014: 257, no. 15), and Skästa, Lillhärads parish (VSM 362) (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Vs6).
Androshchuk and Erik N. Wåhlin cite two swords from Ytterlännäs in Ångermanland as potential Type V specimens (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Ån3a, 3b; Wåhlin 2020: 44, 58). The specimen Ån 3a (registered by the Murgerbet Museum as M97) includes documentation suggesting a segmented pommel with silver inlay, possibly representing a Petersen Special Type (Petersen 1919: Fig. 72). Single Type V specimens are recorded in Dalarna (Utanmyra, Sollerö – SHM 16807; Serning 1966: 196) and Södermanland (Vrena – SHM 17002; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Sö 5*). Kalmring notes that the Vrena hilt shows no traces of decoration and is classified by SHM as Type N, though its pommel morphology and height (5.2 cm) align more closely with Type V, as Type N pommels typically measure 2.4–3 cm (Androshchuk 2014: 69-70, 375). Furthermore, the pommel cap appears slightly concave (Fig. 21). On Gotland, two swords are identified: the uncertain Hangvar specimen discussed earlier and one from Ire, Hellvi parish (GF C 9322:504). Lena Thunmark-Nylén considers the latter to be Type X, noting diagonal silver wires that create a trilobate appearance (Thunmark-Nylén 2000: 435; 2006: 291). Based on our observations, the total number of Swedish Type V swords is 17 (including the chessboard variant), with an additional nine classified as potential candidates.
Only two finds of the studied type are known from Iceland. One was recovered from a prestigious male burial at Eyrarteigur, preserved in four fragments totaling 92 cm in length (Eldjárn 2016: 231-2, 328; Ísberg 2020: 64-65). The second originates from Hrafnkelsdalur; this 92 cm long specimen is complete (Ísberg 2020: 62) and allegedly features remnants of silver and copper decoration on the pommel and crossguard (Eldjárn 2016: 330). It was reportedly discovered in a mound, sold, and eventually acquired by the National Museum of Iceland from the SHM in Stockholm in 1971 (inventory number SHM 11537).
Fig. 21. Pommel of the sword from the site of Vrena, Södermanland.
Source: SHM Stockholm, photo: Sven Kalmring.
In Finland, according to Mikko Moilanen, Type V swords are represented by ten finds, four of which are slightly uncertain in their attribution (Moilanen 2015: 255). All finds are situated in the southern and southwestern parts of the country. The six swords he classifies under Type V originate from Hämeenlinna, Vanaja – KM 370 (Moilanen 2015: 351), Hämeenlinna, Tuulos – KM 708 (Moilanen 2015: 352), Valkeakoski – KM 3301:1 (Moilanen 2015: 365), Kangasala – KM 6245 A:1 (Moilanen 2015: 378), Tampere – KM 15175:1 (Moilanen 2015: 407), and Asikkala – KM 30870:1 (Moilanen 2015: 417). The four uncertain types originate from Mynämäki – KM 7961:1, Vesilahti – KM 10390:5, Jämsä – KM 31550:1 (Moilanen 2015: 418), and Eura – KM 4633:145 (Moilanen 2015: 371). The swords from Mynämäki and Vesilahti survive only with a portion of the blade and a crossguard close to Type V; in the case of KM 7961:1, silver decoration is preserved on the crossguard, while on the second, no decoration can be discerned (Moilanen 2015: 385, 397). According to Moilanen, the crossguard and pommel of the Eura sword are heavily corroded, leaving no visible traces of decoration; furthermore, rivets cannot be identified under the pommel base, and the tang reportedly passes through the cap (Moilanen 2015: 255, 371). To these exemplars, we can add one more sword recorded in the online catalogue finna.fi. This item is a find from Valkeakoski, Vähä-Kantala in Pirkanmaa (inv. no. KM 40078:2). The closest analogy is cited as the sword from Hämeenlinna, Vanaja (KM 370). The sword appears well-preserved; the pommel is relatively high, divided into an upper guard and a trilobate cap by distinct grooves. The central lobe is evenly rounded, and two rivets project from the underside of the upper guard, connecting it to the cap. A straight crossguard with a lens-shaped cross-section is positioned approximately in the middle of the tang. A fragment of the blade survives, though the lower part and point are missing. A fuller runs down the centre of the blade, showing no traces of inscriptions or geometric marks. The total number of Type V swords from Finland is thus seven specimens, alongside four uncertain types.
In the Old Rus’ environment, Sergei Kainov estimates the number of Petersen Type V swords at over 30 specimens, noting that the actual number may be higher due to illegal excavations (personal communication with Sergei Kainov). From Belarus, only three finds are known, as listed by Mikalai Plavinski (Plavinski 2009: Tab. I, № 4–6). Two swords originate from mounds in the cemeteries of Haradzilava and Gurkovich in the west (Plavinski 2009: 15–16, Figs. 7. 1-2, 8. 1), and a third from Polotsk in the north (Plavinski 2009: 15, Fig. 6. 1–4; Eremeev 2012: 288, Fig. 10). On older photographs, the pommels of the first two swords appear to be two-part without cap division. However, according to F. D. Gurevich, the Haradzilava exemplar features a trilobate cap (Plavinski 2009: 16). According to the latest revision, it is certain that the fragmentary sword from Gurkovich has a two-part pommel joined by a rivet or rivets, and both components carry remnants of (likely) stepped decoration in silver and red metal (Janionis 2025: Cat. No. 35). In Russia, S. Kainov records 22 specimens (personal communication). From the Smolensk Oblast, four swords originate from the Gnezdovo mounds: C-41/Sizov 1885, a destroyed mound 1899, Dn-86/Sergeyev 1901, and Dn-4/Avdusin 1984 (Kainov 2012: 42, 44–46, 53–54) (Fig. 22). According to the sword registry compiled by V. I. Raudonikas, another Type V sword from Gnezdovo was discovered in a mound in 1913 but has since been lost (Kainov – Novikov 2024: 156, note б). Another possible Type V or H, based on a photograph in the Smolensk Museum, reportedly originates from Kurgan L-147 (Kainov – Novikov 2024: 156, note г). Another specimen originating from the Smolensk region is a stray find recovered in 1972 from a field near the village of Semenovka in the Roslavl district (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 227). The sword is almost entirely preserved, save for the pommel cap (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: Figs. 1–2), and was initially classified as Petersen Type V (Kirpichnikov 1992: 77, Cat. No. 6, Fig. 8. 3). Recent research indicates that the hilt components – specifically the cross-guard and the pommel base – comprise elements from two distinct sword types. While the cross-guard undoubtedly belongs to Type V, the more massive pommel base originates from a Petersen Type H sword, suggesting a subsequent modification or repair of the artifact following structural damage (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 236).
Three swords were discovered in the mounds of the Southeastern Ladoga region. Two originate from the Kashina cemetery (VII-complex 1/1878-86) and a third from Vakhrusheva (CXVI-complex 1/1878-86) (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. Nos. 53, 54, 55). To these, we can add a grave find from Zaozerye, which Kirpichnikov assigned to Type T2 (Raudonikas 1930: 43–44, Figs. 38. b, 39; Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. No. 40). According to S. Kainov, this sword belongs to Type V (personal communication), which corresponds to the pommel shape (Ravdonikas 1930: Fig. 39; Maczek et al. 2024: 293–294). From the Upper Volga region, specifically the Yaroslavl Oblast, three swords are documented. Two were found in the Mikhailovskoye kurgan group (one in Kurgan 1/1898 and one stray find) and a third from Petrovskoye (Kurgan 38) (Zozulya 2007: 23, Figs. 6. 2, 7. 1–2). Kirpichnikov tentatively lists another sword from Kurgan 34 in Mikhailovskoye (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. No. 57), consisting only of a blade fragment and pommel, but according to S. Zozulya, this specimen belongs to Type X (Kainov – Novikov 2024: 229, Cat. No. 6; Zozulya 2007: 26–27, Fig. 8.3). Individual finds or fragments are recorded from five other Russian regions. One sword comes from the mouth of the Neva River in the St. Petersburg zone (Kirpichnikov 1992: 77, Cat. No. 2). From the Novgorod Oblast comes a fragmentary sword with a preserved crossguard and blade section from grave KH-5 in the Udrai II cemetery, Batetsky District (Kirpichnikov 1992: 77, Cat. No. 3; Platonova 1998: 378–379, Fig. 5. 1–2). The crossguard retains stepped decoration in silver and copper, similar to the Gnezdovo specimen. In the Pskov Oblast, a Type V sword was found in a disturbed cemetery near the village of Cherma (Kirpichnikov 2000: 7-8; Makarov et al. 2023: 59, Fig. 8 b). From the Vladimir Oblast, an upper guard find is recorded from Krapivye (Makarov et al. 2023: Fig. 2), and from the Shokshinsky cemetery in the rural locality of Tengushevo in the Republic of Mordovia comes a sword with a bent blade, which was discovered in cremation grave no. 281 with decoration identical to that of the pommel and crossguard of the sword from the destroyed mound in Gnezdovo (Shitov 1992: 116–117, Tab. I).
Approximately twelve swords are recorded on the territory of Ukraine, some of which have been published (personal communication with Sergei Kainov). In the north, three finds are noted: two from Kyiv, one of which is uncertain (Kirpichnikov 1997: 717–722, Fig. 1; Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 96–97, Fig. 5), and a third from a rich chamber grave (no. 110) in Shestovytsia (Androshchuk 2014: 116; Syta – Mudrytska 2023: 120). Two more are known from the west: one from a mound in Pidhirtsi (Liwoch 2005: 52–54) and a stray find near Khmelnytskyi (Eidel 2022: 34–37). From southern Ukraine, we record only one stray find, from the Zaporizhzhia Oblast in the vicinity of Khortytsia Island (Ostapenko – Sarychev 2016: 49–64, Fig. 8). A remarkable unique specimen is represented by a sword from an undocumented location, purportedly within the Cherkasy region. F. Androshchuk and V. I. Zotsenko characterize it as a “peculiar type of sword” featuring a Petersen Type N pommel cap combined with a base and cross-guard attributable to types H/I or V (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 318, Fig. 251. a). The pommel cap is shorter relative to the base; however, compared to the cross-guard, the base is more massive and taller (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: Fig. 251. b–v). S. Kainov and A. Shchedrina further observe that all hilt components belong to Type V, as they are embellished with a rhomboid pattern (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 239). It is plausible that the sword underwent repair, with the pommel base likely being the replaced component (Kainov – Shchedrina 2025: 239). Two other swords were previously classified as Type V but can be excluded: a find from the Dnieper in Cherkasy (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 120–121, Fig. a-b) has a single-piece pommel made of non-ferrous metal and thus belongs to Type W (Kainov – Zozulya 2022: 122, Fig. 11). Sergei Kainov believes that the crossguard could theoretically belong to Type V, but he is more inclined toward the H variant as, according to him, it is higher (personal communication with Sergei Kainov). Another find from the Dnieper rapids, between Kherson and Oleshky, is considered a possible Type T2, T, or V (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. No. 42; Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 3158; Maczek et al. 2024: 294). This exemplar, however, can be safely assigned to Type T2. Photographs and drawings in the 1935 journal PIDO (ΠИДO) show that the upper guard and crossguard have distinct triangular-rhomboid decoration on the lateral sides placed horizontally, and vertically in the centre (Takhtay 1935: Figs. 2, 4).
Fig. 22. Swords from the Gnezdovo mounds.
1. C-20; 2. Dn-86; 3. Destroyed mound; 4. Dn-4.
Source: Kainov 2012: Figs. 32, 33. 1, 4, 35. 1-2, 39. 2, 4.
Approximately 23 swords originating from the territories of Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and the Kaliningrad Oblast can be definitively assigned to the studied type. Vytautas Kazakevičius cited 13 specimens from the Baltic region in his work (Kazakevičius 1996: 114–115). However, Sergei Kainov maintains that not all swords listed by Kazakevičius from these areas (including East Prussia) are consistent with Petersen Type V as defined by the Norwegian scholar (Kainov 2012: 42, note 29).
According to Mati Mandel, five Petersen Type V swords have been documented across various regions of Estonia. One specimen represents a stray find from the vicinity of Tori, Pärnu County, in the southwest (Mandel 1991: Cat. No. 21, Tab. X – 2). Western Estonia has yielded a single sword, likely originating from the villages of Karuse or Hanila in Lääne County (currently Pärnu County) (Mandel 1991: 118, Cat. No. 24). Similarly, in the eastern part of the country, a solitary sword was excavated from the cemetery at Raatvere, Jõgeva County (now Tartu County) (Mandel 1991: 118, Cat. No. 25). From the island of Saaremaa, Mandel identifies two swords of the type under consideration: AI K 85:108 (Fig. 3) (Mandel 1991: Cat. No. 22) and AI K 85:120 (Mandel 1991: Cat. No. 23, Tab. X – 1). Regarding the latter specimen (AI K 85:120), the typological classification remains contested. The pommel cap – which has reportedly been lost (Williams 2012: 139, Cat. no. II/5) – bears a closer morphological affinity to Type T2. Consequently, several scholars have categorized the sword as Type T2 (Müller-Wille 1970: 86, Cat. No. 60; Stalsberg 2008: Cat. No. EST8); however, due to the absence of decoration, its attribution to Type V cannot be entirely dismissed. Furthermore, Mandel identifies three additional specimens as potential Type V variants, of which only undecorated pommel bases remain: one discovered in the Madi mound in Viljandi County (southern Estonia; AI 2590: 1870) and two from Saaremaa (AI K85: 34, 35) (Mandel 1991: 118).
Three further specimens may be assigned to the corpus under discussion. According to Indrek Jets, an unpublished pommel cap of a Type V sword (Fig. 23) originates from the locality of Ruu, Jõelähtme Parish, Harju County (I. Jets, personal communication). An additional unpublished sword was discovered via metal detecting in northeastern Estonia near the village of Viitna, Lääne-Viru County, and is currently housed in the private Käsmu Sea Museum (I. Jets, personal communication). Photographic evidence provided by Jets reveals a two-part pommel featuring a trilobate cap and a lenticular cross-guard, both embellished with vertical incisions; traces of non-ferrous metal from melted ornamentation are discernible within these recesses. The third specimen is a pommel cap morphologically similar to Type V, lacking extant decoration, discovered at the Järve site (I. Jets, personal communication). In the provided photograph, the cap is positioned adjacent to a relatively massive pommel base which, according to Jets’ assessment, may belong to Type H.
Fig. 23. Pommel cap from Ruu.
Source: Photograph kindly provided by Indrek Jets.
In the territory of Latvia, Artūrs Tomsons records six Type V swords (Tomsons 2018: 286–287, Cat. Nos. 52–57), four of which can be definitively assigned to the investigated type, while two remain uncertain. Two swords originate from the region inhabited by the Latgalians (Tomsons 2018: 65). One was discovered in the richly furnished Grave 30 at the Priekuļu Ģūģeri cemetery (Apala – Zariņa 1991: 19, Fig. 4. 14; Tomsons 2018: 65–66), and the second in Grave 280 at the Aglonas Kristapiņi cemetery (Kuniga 2000: 68–69, Fig. XX. 1-1a; Tomsons 2018: 66). From the Aizkraukle cemetery in southern Latvia comes a sword whose find circumstances are not entirely clear (Tomsons 2018: 67). Aleksis Anteins and Vytautas Kazakevičius originally classified this sword as Type X (Anteins 1966: 123, Cat. No. 30; Kazakevičius 1996: 67, 115). A. Tomsons disagrees with this assertion, arguing that both the crossguard and the pommel exhibit traits typical of Type V swords, while also drawing attention to the fact that the lateral segments of the pommel cap are slightly curved (Tomsons 2018: 67, Fig. 32. 3). The fourth sword is believed to originate from a private collection, preserving the pommel and a fragment of the blade tang (Tomsons 2012: 87, Fig. 29. 5; 2018: 287, Cat. No. 57). A sword with an unclear typological classification, which Tomsons suggests could be a Type V or a related form, was discovered on the shore of Lake Rāzna in eastern Latvia (Tomsons 2018: 67). According to him, the crossguard is straight, but the pommel is characterized by a curved upper guard, and its only analogy is an unspecified sword from East Prussia (Tomsons 2018: 67, note 395). The existence of this sword is reportedly attested by a record and two sketches in the Archaeological Department of the National History Museum of Latvia (Tomsons 2018: 67, note 394). The sixth specimen, according to Tomsons, is a bronze pommel found near Ikšķile Castle in central Latvia, decorated with various interlaced lines of an unspecified yellow metal (Tomsons 2018: 67). The pommel is single-piece, with a groove indicating the separation of the upper guard from the semicircular cap, and a ferrule located beneath the upper guard (Tomsons 2018: Fig. 32. 4). Tomsons suggests that the pommel’s appearance resembles Petersen Type N (Tomsons 2018: 68). The closest analogy for this pommel is the sword found in Lough Derg, Ireland (Halpin 2017: 199, 9.9). Typologically, however, the sword falls within the Wallingford group, though a developmental connection to Types L, Z2, and Æ cannot be ruled out (Vlasatý 2020c; personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý).
From Lithuania, three finds can be assigned to the studied type. Two originate from mounds at the sites of Rokantiškės and Žvirbliai, now part of Vilnius in the southeast (Muszianowicz 1968: 338, 344–347; Iwanowska – Kazakevičius 2001: 241, 250–251, Fig. VII. 1). The sword from Rokantiškės was originally classified as Petersen Type X, but as Krystyna Muszianowicz points out, the pommel differs from this type in that it is composed of two parts (Muszianowicz 1968: 345). The upper guard with chamfered lateral edges and the semicircular cap are joined by rivets, and the cap’s surface bears traces of silver and copper decoration (Muszianowicz 1968: 345, Figs. 7. c-d, 8). The third sword is a stray find from an unknown location, only recently published by Andrius Janionis in his dissertation (Janionis 2025: Cat. No. 157). The find is preserved with a small fragment of the blade and the complete hilt, including the crossguard and pommel. On one side of the cap, three twisted wires are situated side-by-side in a groove. The sword also retains remnants of silver decoration. In addition to these three swords, Vytautas Kazakevičius lists two further specimens designated as Type V. One originates from the site of Dauglaukis, near the border with the Kaliningrad Oblast, discovered in the Grave 77, which also contained two stirrups and a spearhead (Kazakevičius 1996: 63, Fig. 71). However, the sword does not correspond to the classic criteria for Type V. The pommel has a relatively massive upper guard with a semicircular cap lacking evident division into three segments. The crossguard is short, massive, and slightly curved towards the blade. The lateral sides of the crossguard are chamfered obliquely, also towards the blade. Remnants of silver decoration in the form of a double dashed line are also reported (Kazakevičius 1996: 63). Furthermore, X-ray imagery clearly shows that the tang passes through the upper guard and the pommel (Janionis 2025: Fig. 20). A relatively close analogy to the Lithuanian specimen is the sword from the Finnish site of Kakkulainen – Astala, Kokemäki (Leppäaho 1964: Tab. 39. 1, Fig. 1a-f), whose hilt components may, according to Mikko Moilanen, be related to Petersen Type T swords, with decoration similar to Type S (Moilanen 2018: 124). The second is a find from western Lithuania, from Viešvilė in Jurbarkas District, also near the Kaliningrad Oblast border (Kazakevičius 1996: 115, Cat. No. 12). Based on the morphological characteristics of the pommel, it can be inferred that the sword belongs more likely to Type T2 (Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė 1964: 209, 225, Cat. No. 19; Budvydas 2007: 210, Fig. 8. 1).
From the regions of former East Prussia, within the territory of the present-day Kaliningrad Oblast, ten Type V swords are believed to originate. Five were found at the cemetery in a small forest near the village of Wiskiauten (now Mokhovoye) at the Kaup site: mound 14/1880, mound 18/1880, and mound 11/1897 (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 334, 335, 339, Figs. 15-16). Christoph Jahn and Timo Ibsen designate the swords from mounds 14/1880 and 18/1880 as Petersen Type X, despite both bearing stepped decoration (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 35), and the latter originally preserving a trilobate cap (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: Tab. 46. 3). Nina Dworschak assigns both swords to Type V (Dworschak 2018: 108–109, Cat. Nos. 26, 29). The fourth is a sword broken into two pieces with silver inlay on the pommel and crossguard from mound no. 174 (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 351, Tab. 192.1). The fifth find from Wiskiauten is an iron pommel cap with two protruding rivets and fragmentary silver decoration, discovered in area 21B (Ibsen 2013: 246). Nina Dworschak lists two additional Type V swords from Wiskiauten, both also from mounds. One survives only as a blade fragment, reportedly assigned to Type V by researchers V. I. Kulakov and A. S. Syrovatko, dated between 875–925 (Dworschak 2018: 109, 278 – Cat. No. 42, Tab. 55. 6). The second is a sword from the excavations of Frida Davidovna Gurevich, preserving silver inlay on the pommel and crossguard and an Ulfberht inscription on the blade (Dworschak 2018: 109, 308–309 – Cat. No. 158). However, the fact remains that both the pommel and the crossguard are decorated with pitted ornamentation (Dworschak 2018: 108, Fig. 62 – right), a typical feature of Petersen Type E swords, under which F. D. Gurevich also classified it (Gurevich 1963: 207).
From the cemetery in Linkuhnen (now Rzhevskoye), three Type V swords originate, each being a grave find. From grave no. 7/1928 comes a sword pommel cap (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 189, 192 – Fig. 88, 346, Tab. 14 – 2). The remaining two were discovered with bent blades in graves no. 25/1929 (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 355; Tab. 34) and no. 42(A)/1929 (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 194–195, 357–358, Tab. 35-6). The latter sword is assigned to Type X in the work of N. Goßler and C. Jahn, with the addendum that the pommel was covered with bronze, likely representing inlay (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 194–195). Furthermore, the crossguard is more oval than straight and tapers towards the ends (Goßler – Jahn 2019: Tab. 35-6); therefore, we believe this sword may also belong to the studied type. According to Kazakevičius, one Type V sword is also believed to originate from the site of Tilsit (now Sovetsk) (Kazakevičius 1996: 115, Cat. No. 11). However, in the work of B. Von zur Mühlen, it is assigned to Type X (Mühlen 1975: 35, Tab. 11. 3). The online catalogue of the Berlin State Museums – Museum of Prehistory and Early History classifies the Tilsit sword as Petersen Type V, adhering to Kazakevičius. The crossguard is corroded but bears traces of inlay, which must have also been present on the pommel, as evidenced by a photograph published in Mühlen’s earlier work. The tang is bent, as is the blade fragment. The pommel itself, however, appears atypical. The upper guard and cap give the impression of being curved, thus resembling the pommels of Petersen Type Z swords. Yet, in the SMB portal photograph, it is clearly visible that the lateral edges of the upper guard do not rise upwards; on the contrary, the upper guard appears straight. One additional, likely unpublished find originates from an unknown East Prussian location (PM Pr 256).
In the British Isles, Petersen Type V swords are not widespread; rather, Types L, X, M, Z, H/I, and Q predominate (Androshchuk 2014: 190). Only a single find corresponds to the studied type, originating from a richly furnished burial mound at Ballateare, in the parish of Jurby on the Isle of Man (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 45, 51–54, Pl. XII. A). A water find from the River Frome in Wareham, Dorset, in southern England, is also designated as a possible Type V; J. E. Acland originally classified it between Petersen Types U and X (Acland 1928: 361–362, Vol. VIII, Pl. LIII). David M. Wilson compared it with several Anglo-Saxon Type L swords and Type T swords from Kyiv and Utgården (Wilson 1965: 43–44). Vera I. Evison maintains that the sword is typologically closer to Type V and excluded the possibility of Anglo-Saxon production (Evison 1967: 167). Jiří Košta also classifies the sword as Type V, but as an atypical variant (Košta 2021: Tab. 10, Cat. No. 3300). Its morphological characteristics suggest that placing it within Petersen’s classification is relatively difficult. While the pommel consists of an upper guard and a trilobate pommel cap, the crossguard is curved with edges directed toward the blade, and the pattern decorating the upper guard and crossguard is not stepped but represents alternating triangles and hexagons filled with an inlay of twisted silver and copper (or brass and copper) wires (Evison 1967: 167, Fig. 7. a-b), making the pattern closer to Petersen Type T2 swords.
According to Grzegorz Żabiński, one Type V sword is believed to originate from the Scottish site of Kiloran Bay, in the Argyll administrative area on the Isle of Colonsay (Żabiński 2007: 50, Fig. 16. a-b). The sword comprises several fragments; its assignment to Type V or U is only tentative, based on the alleged decoration of certain hilt parts in the form of a chessboard pattern of silver and copper wire, as well as a reportedly preserved rivet on the underside of the upper guard (Żabiński 2007: 65; 47, Fig. 17). His work also publishes X-ray images of the hilt (Żabiński 2007: 48, Fig. 18. a-b), in which it appears that the pommel may indeed have been covered with chessboard decoration, but simultaneously, it seems the pommel cap is divided into five segments (image a). Based on these indications, the sword may be closer to Type K. One Type V sword is also alleged to originate from the Irish site of Kilmainham (Shetelig 1940a: 20; Kainov 2012: 42; Androshchuk 2014: 79). Haakon Shetelig suggested the sword is more similar to the specimen from the Norwegian site of Torblå Ulvik (Shetelig 1940a: 20). However, the sword’s pommel appears to be fitted with a triangular cap. According to Stephen H. Harrison and Raghnall Ó Floinn, it is rather a Petersen Type I (Harrison – Ó Floinn 2014: 85, III. 38 a).
In continental Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe, the number of swords of the studied type is significantly low. With a few exceptions, they are practically absent there. From the Western European region, we record only two water finds from France. One is believed to be a stray find from the Loire River, reportedly in Orléans (Delort 2017-2018: 93). The second is said to originate from the Seine River (Shetelig 1940b: 125; Arbman – Nilsson 1968: 165–166), discovered between the municipalities of Freneuse and Oissel, or between Rouen and Elbeuf (Delort 2017-2018: 98). Hugues Delort mentions one additional Type V sword, also believed to come from the Seine River bed, at the municipality of Saint-Nicolas-de-Bliquetuit at the location of Pont de Brotonne (Delort 2017-2018: 105, 107-108). Traces of brass decoration are reportedly present on the crossguard (Delort 2017-2018: 105). Since the sword was not preserved with a cap, its assignment to Type V is rather questionable, as the upper guard could have been fitted with either a trilobate or a triangular cap.
In Central Europe, only five swords are known. One stray find is recorded from Olomouc in the Czech Republic (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2019: 193–194, ID No 162). From Poland comes a trilobate pommel with an upper guard and a fragment of the blade tang from a settlement at the site of Drohiczyn in Siemiatycze District, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in the east of the country (Pudło 2012a: 86-88; 2012b: 83, Tab. XII. 2, XL. 9), which Krystyna Musianowicz originally classified as Petersen Type X (Muszianowicz 1969: 151).
Two further swords are associated with Old Hungarian cemeteries in Čierna nad Tisou, Trebišov District in eastern Slovakia (Pastor 1952: 485–486; Ruttkay 1975: 135), and in Székesfehérvár, at the Rádiótelep site in Grave 36 in Hungary (Bakay 1965: 13, IV). The sword from Čierna nad Tisou was originally designated as Petersen Type X, later as Type U (Nevizánsky 2012: 77), and according to a newer revision, its classification has been re-evaluated as Petersen Type V (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 323–324). The pommel and crossguard of the sword are covered in some places with non-ferrous metal (Fig. 27), identified as a copper alloy (Jócsik 2024: Cat. No. 5). The fifth exemplar also originates from Hungary, from the vicinity of the town of Szécsény in Nógrád County, discovered likely in the Ipeľ River bed and originally designated as Type S or T, and later as Type U (Kovács 1994–1995: 175, Cat. No. 66, Fig. 4. 5). Remnants of stepped decoration in white and red metal are reportedly preserved on the pommel and crossguard (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý). Despite their low number in the Central European space and the fact that not a single grave find of this type is known from the territories of the former Holy Roman Empire, local royal courts and elites had access to them, and together with Types S and T, they became relics or coronation swords (Schulze-Dörrlamm 2014). One such example may be the sword allegedly gifted by Emperor Otto I to the Cathedral of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, founded in 968 (Schulze-Dörrlamm 2014: 619). The sword has not survived to the present day and exists only as a drawing in the Aschaffenburg Parchment Codex from the 16th century (Schulze-Dörrlamm 2014: 610, 612, Fig. 1. 1–2).
Fig. 24. Hilt of the sword from Čierna nad Tisou.
Source: Photograph kindly provided by Mr. Ján Rákoš of the East Slovak Museum in Košice.
Two finds of Petersen Type V swords are also recorded in Southeastern Europe. One originates from an unknown location in the Sliven region of Bulgaria, originally designated as Type H (Yotov 2016: 108; Zlatkov 2014: 139; Sirakov 2018: 144; Kamburov 2023: 23). However, based on the morphological characteristics of the pommel, it appears the sword is closer to Type V (Zlatkov 2014: 138–139). The second originates from Romania. It was found at the site of Albești, west of Mangalia in Constanța County, and is allegedly said to bear an Ulfberht inscription and a geometric mark on the blade (Yotov 2011: 39, Fig. 5. a-b; Șova 2020: 163). Two additional specimens from Romania could potentially correspond to the studied type. One from Pașcani in Iași County, in the historical region of Moldavia (Spinei 2009: Fig. 9.13), designated as Type S, or possibly Geibig’s Combination Type 11 (Gáll 2015: 319) or Type U (Tentiuc – Munteanu 2022: 37). The second comes from the historical region of Transylvania, with an unclear find location. The literature cites the localities of Brăișoru (Cluj County) or Morești (Mureș County) (Gáll 2013: 317; Husár – Oța 2024: 663, Fig. 3). Only a portion of the blade and an oval crossguard have survived, allegedly with traces of non-ferrous metal incrustation containing zinc, while the shape of the crossguard may suggest affiliation with several Petersen types – Special Type 1, E, H/I, K, O-3, U, and V (Husár – Oța 2024: 665–666).
In conclusion, I would like to mention three more swords, one of which is located in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. Two photographs of the sword available on the online platform Reddit show that typologically, it could belong to the studied type. The sword appears to be preserved in remarkably good condition. The blade in one of the photographs looks complete, with traces of an inscription from which the letters ERH+T can be discerned, suggesting a possible affiliation with the VLFBERH+T inscription group. The decoration on the crossguard and the two-part pommel is similar to that found on the sword from the destroyed mound in Gnezdovo or from Tengushevo. In all three cases, the silver fields of the triangles were filled with six wires. The similarity of the lateral segments to the Gnezdovo exemplar, where grooves dividing the cap into three segments are absent, is also striking. The sword has likely not been professionally published, nor is there any known information regarding the place of origin, find circumstances, or technical parameters of the sword.
The second sword comes from a private collection in the United States (personal consultation with Tomáš Vlasatý) and was sold by the auction house Bonhams in 2013. According to the auction house’s information, the sword is likely a water find from the Danube in Germany. The description states that the sword is dated to the 9th–10th century and the blade reportedly bears an Ulfberht inscription, which is, however, illegible. Furthermore, it is stated that the sword was discovered with riverbed deposits on the pommel. Wooden remnants of the scabbard are allegedly preserved on both sides of the blade below the crossguard. The hilt consists of an oval crossguard, a wood-covered tang, and a two-part pommel. The description also mentions remnants of vertical silver and copper decoration that has fallen out. The total length of the sword is 95.8 cm, of which the blade is 80.2 cm long. The sword was subjected to digital X-ray and CT scanning, and the conclusions of this research were published by Robert A. Hill in 2016 (Hill 2016: 19). These showed that the corroded blade likely bears a variant of the inscription +VLFBERH+T (Hill 2016: 21–22, Fig. 7). The crossguard and pommel are covered on one side with a fragment of decoration, probably of copper alloy (Hill 2016: 20). The author of the study classifies the sword pommel as an earlier variant of Petersen Type X, noting that on the edge of one side, remnants of copper alloy wires are applied obliquely, which according to R. A. Hill may refer to trilobate pommels, as in Type V (Hill 2016: 20). X-ray images as well as a 2D MPR scan revealed that the pommel consists of an upper guard and a cap, which are fastened together by an inverted U-shaped wedge (⋂), and also that the tang passes only through the upper guard (Hill 2016: 23, Figs. 6, 9). A brief note on the hilt decoration is also worth mentioning. The pattern is preserved relatively clearly, especially on the crossguard. It is formed by vertical bands of yellow non-ferrous metal. In shape, it resembles the stepped decoration of the crossguard of the sword from the Khmelnytskyi Oblast and the crossguard of the sword from Khortytsia Island, which is supported by the information about the silver and copper wire inlay. Based on this information, it appears that the exemplar could be close to the studied type.
Given that a relatively large number of Viking Age sword forgeries have appeared recently, the possibility that the two aforementioned finds may be skillfully executed forgeries cannot be ruled out (Vlasatý 2024).
A third, relatively peculiar exemplar allegedly originates from western Ukraine. Information about the find was published as early as September 2013 on the forum forum.violity.com. The finder states that he discovered the sword while diving in the Styr River. This river rises in the Lviv Oblast and flows further through the Volyn and Rivne Oblast into Belarus, where it joins the Pripyat River. More specific information regarding the find location is unknown. According to photographs from the forum, the sword can be described as follows: it is preserved in a complete and suspiciously good condition. A fuller is relatively well discernible on the blade surface. The finder also mentions that the blade was still sharp at the time of discovery. Furthermore, he states that parts of the hilt are bronze. From the photographs, it appears that neither the crossguard nor the pommel were made of this material. The crossguard appears relatively massive, with preserved decoration on one side in the form of stepped rhomboids placed vertically. Their fields are filled with yellow metal. However, the pommel is a peculiar feature. It consists of a low upper guard and a cap, which is divided into three lobes by two indistinct oblique grooves. The pommel shows no traces of decoration. The upper guard and cap are joined by two rivets. Their shape and method of attachment, however, point to possible improvisation. It gives the impression of being an imitation of an original pommel (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý). The sword might seem like a forgery, but the find is relatively little known and does not feature on any auction portals. On the contrary, the finder informs that he intends to keep the sword in his personal possession. Based on its shape and decoration, the sword’s crossguard could be assigned to Type V.
Distribution map of Petersen Type V swords.
Blue – definite Type V specimen. Red – uncertain Type V specimen.
V. Dating
Despite their extensive geographical distribution, the dating of Petersen Type V swords is not entirely unequivocal. Chronology may vary across individual regions due to diverse cultural or historical circumstances – a phenomenon that generally applies to other Viking Age sword types as well. Certain specimens from the Eastern European sphere tend to be dated later than their Scandinavian counterparts, and the issue of their chronology and mutual relationships requires examination in conjunction with the Scandinavian material (Androshchuk 2014: 145).
Within the total corpus of 159 swords, 91 originate from funerary contexts. Approximately thirteen specimens are associated with aquatic depositions, while the remaining 55 comprise stray finds or artifacts for which the discovery circumstances remain either uncertain or undocumented. Regarding the chronology of Type V swords, we relied on the presence of various associated artefacts within graves; these are primarily other militaria such as thrusting polearms and striking weapons, as well as shield bosses, scabbard chapes, long combat knives, and equestrian equipment (stirrups).
According to Fedir Androshchuk, Petersen Type V swords appear from the mid- to late second half of the 10th century (Androshchuk 2013: 74). Jan Petersen dated the Norwegian finds to the first half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919: 155–156, 182); however, at the time of his publication, only six swords of this type were known, five of which came from grave contexts and one was a possible mound find (B4347). Over time, additional specimens have been added, 12 of which also originate from graves (B8118a, B7667, B11390a, C35841, C57066, S6801, T16143, T21339, T17462, T922, T16983). In the Norwegian context, Type V swords appear in combination with axe heads of Types E, F, H, I, and K, spearheads of Types G, I, and K, and shield bosses of Type R562 (Petersen 1919: 155; Pedersen 2014b: 123, Cat. No. N 9; Martens – Astrup 2021: 145, Appendix 1; personal observation derived from unimus.no catalog). Eight graves exhibit an assemblage of all three militaria together with a shield boss, which in six cases was identified as Type R562 (B4830, B8118, B11390, C20955, S2266, T17462), while in two cases only fragments of bosses survived without the possibility of precise typological classification (B2799, T16983). The dating of R562 shield bosses is estimated to the Middle Viking Age, i.e., the period between 850–950 (Petersen 1919: 47), although some specimens may appear as late as the beginning of the third quarter of the 10th century (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 163, 185). Among axes, Type H is the most frequent, found in six instances (B4830, B8118, C35841, C20955, T16143, T17462), with one assumed affiliation to this type (T16983/b.002). According to Petersen, it appears around 900 and belongs rather to the first half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919: 43), but it seems their use continued into the period around 975 (Vlasatý 2016b). Petersen Type I was found in association with a Type V sword in only one case (S2389) and, according to the Norwegian researcher, belongs exclusively to the 10th century, as does Type K, which is recorded in two finds (B7667, B11390) (Petersen 1919: 43–44). Axes of Types E and F are also recorded in single specimens each (S2266, T922). According to Petersen, Type E axes belong to the second half of the 9th century, but he simultaneously assumes they still occur in western Norway in the 10th century (Petersen 1919: 41–42), as evidenced by the grave find from Østabø in Rogaland (S2266/a) in southwestern Norway, where the sword was found together with an R562 boss and a Type K spearhead. Type F is dated between 900–975 (Vlasatý 2016b). Spearheads of Type K (Solberg’s Type VII.2B) should largely originate from the period 900–950, though they continued to be used until the end of the 10th century (Solberg 1984: 96). Six cases of such deposition in a grave with a Type V sword are known (B8118, B11390, C20955, S2266, T16143, T16983). Spearheads of Type I are dated by Petersen to the first half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919: 31), a view shared by B. Solberg, though she notes elsewhere that the type must have been used even after 950, citing the grave find from Gjermundbu (C27317) where this spearhead type was found with a Type S sword, albeit with a shorter blade, suggesting the Norwegian exemplar may be a younger variant of subtype VII.2A (Petersen I) (Solberg 1984: 94–95). We record four specimens with Type V swords (B4830, S6801, S2389, T17462). Spearheads of Petersen Type G (Type IX.1a), according to Bergljot Solberg, began to be used sometime after 950 and continued until the end of the Viking Age (Solberg 1984: 123). One such find is recorded with a Type V sword from Ballestad in Telemark (C35841/a.I), which also contained a Type H axe head. The pommel and crossguard from Kaupang are dated to the 10th century based on the presence of a circular brooch with zoomorphic depiction in the Jelling style (Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen 1995: Pl. 36; Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen – Ingstad 1999: 84). The Jelling art style is generally placed in the first half or middle of the 10th century (Androshchuk 2014: 133). The sword find from mound 319 at Vang, Oppdal in Trøndelag is also dated to the first half of the 10th century (Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen – Ingstad 1999: 83). The sword was reportedly found in a female cremation grave; given that it bears no traces of burning, it was interpreted as a gift for the deceased woman from her husband or a close family member (Kirpitsjnikov 1993: 85). A more likely possibility is that the sword originated from a larger mound that overlay the female grave (Blindheim – Heyerdahl-Larsen – Ingstad 1999: 83).
Of interest is the grave from Hommerstad (C4979), which represents an extreme case defined by a possible Type V sword, three shield bosses of Type Rygh 565, an axe head close to Type M, and spearheads of Types D and L. Petersen suggested that the Type D spearhead represents a younger variant of the type and the grave could be dated to the second half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919: 175). The axe head could belong to Type H, K, or L. Shield bosses of the R565 form are dated roughly to the last quarter of the 10th century (Pedersen 2014a: 171). The spearhead (C4981) undoubtedly belongs to the aforementioned Type D, which in Bergljot Solberg’s typological classification belongs to variant VI.3B, dated between 800–900 (Vlasatý 2014). Solberg simultaneously assumes that Petersen dated the spearhead based on the axe (similar to Type M) and shield bosses, and she herself leans toward the possibility that the finds originate from two different graves – one dating to the 9th and the other to the 11th century (Solberg 1984: 64–65), which would practically rule out the possibility that the sword could be Type H/I.
In essence, we can agree with Jan Petersen’s assertion that Type V swords in Norway appear predominantly in the first half of the 10th century, but with a possible extension into the beginning of its second half. Nevertheless, certain specimens, such as the sword from Ballestad or the potential Type V from Hommerstad, belong to the second half of the 10th century based on the grave goods.
According to Fedir Androshchuk, Swedish Type V swords fall within the Middle Viking Age, specifically its second phase occurring between 900–975 (Androshchuk 2014: 171). He also points out that, along with Type S, they are less popular compared to Types H/I, E, X, and Y, with Type V accounting for only 3% of the Swedish corpus (Androshchuk 2014: 182). Chronologically older specimens occur in graves with axe heads of Types G and H, spearheads of Types E, I, and K, and shield bosses of Types R562 and R563. The context of younger swords is associated with Type R565 shield bosses, axe heads of Types M and L, and Type M spearheads (Androshchuk 2014: 166). Both swords from the chamber graves in Birka (524 and 544) are typically dated to the first half of the 10th century (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322). In addition to an R563 shield boss and a Petersen Type G axe head (Arbman 1943: 161; Androshchuk 2014: 149, Table VI.2), Grave 524 contained silver Islamic coins minted in 890–891 and 909–910. Type G axes are dated between 825–925, or broadly between 800–975, while R563 bosses appear at the end of the second quarter of the 10th century and continue into the 11th century (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 163, 185; Vlasatý 2016b). Grave 544 contained an R562 shield boss and a Type V dress pin (according to Thunmark-Nylén) with an animal motif in the Borre style (Thunmark-Nylén 1984: 9; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Up 33). The use of the Borre art style is estimated to span roughly from the late 9th to the late 10th century (Androshchuk 2014: 131). Given the grave goods of both Birka complexes, a date in the mid- to possibly third quarter of the 10th century can be assumed (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý).
Similarly, the sword from Rösta in Jämtland was deposited in the grave along with an R562 shield boss, a Type H axe, and, among other items, silver dirhams minted in 943–944 (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Jä 12*). The sword was placed in a scabbard with an Androshchuk Type 6a chape, dated to the second half of the 10th century (Androshchuk 2014: 121). The grave goods also included a pouch with a belt. A bronze buckle with interlace pattern, several bronze fittings with a motif of two opposing animal heads, and leather belt fragments were preserved (Müller-Wille 2011: 195). The pouch survived with various types of bronze fittings – one large rhomboid fitting and four smaller ones, all with plant motifs; additionally, the pouch included smaller marginal fittings in the form of stylized palmettes, a strap with bronze fittings, a bronze strap-end, a ferrule, and two bronze fittings in the shape of zoomorphic heads (Müller-Wille 2011: 195). Remnants of a pouch in the form of a bronze rhomboid fitting and several smaller fittings are also recorded in association with a Type V sword in the chamber grave from Kurgan Dn-4 in Gnezdovo (Müller-Wille 2011: 201, Figs. 5.2, 6.13–16). Similar finds of fittings are known from other sites, e.g., Birka, Kyiv, Przemyśl, Streda nad Bodrogom (Müller-Wille 2011: Fig. 1), or more recently published finds from Cluj-Napoca – strada Plugarilor, discovered in Grave 25 containing a male and a horse skeleton (Gáll et al. 2023, Fig. 3). Radiocarbon analysis of samples from the male and horse skeletons, as well as several other graves, places the origin of Grave 25 in the second half of the 10th century, specifically between 960–990 (Gáll et al. 2023: 218–219). The Gnezdovo mound is dated between 970–980 (Kainov 2019b: 67). Knut Kjellmark dated the Rösta grave to the 11th century, a view later adopted by Inge Serning (Kjellmark 1905: 371; Serning 1966: 37). Harald Hvarfner disagreed with Kjellmark’s conclusions and, based on the sword (which he designated as a later variant of Petersen Type E) and the scabbard chape, dated the grave to the first half or middle of the 10th century (Hvarfner 1957: 57). Anne-Sofie Gräslund estimates the earliest possible date for the grave as the mid-10th century (Gräslund 1975: 111). However, considering the assemblage of objects in the Rösta grave, their chronology, and the dating of the Gnezdovo and Cluj-Napoca complexes, we can assume it likely originated in the third quarter of the 10th century.
The boat burial mounds 12 and 15 at Valsgärde contained virtually identical items (Androshchuk 2014: 156). The inventory consisted of Type V swords with scabbard chapes of Androshchuk Type 6a (Vg15) (Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 63. 4b) and 6b (Vg12) (Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 63. 1b), Type I spearheads, R563 shield bosses, long combat knives, scales with weights, textile fragments, and equestrian equipment (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. Nos. Up 114, 117*; Sénby-Posse 2021: 65–66, 91–92). Grave 12 also contained 32 fragments of silver Islamic coins dated to 940/950 or 952 (Androshchuk 2014: 156, 412; Stjerna 2007: 245). Due to the similarity of the objects, J. Ljungkvist assumes the mounds may have been created at the same time or very shortly after one another (Ljungkvist 2008: 45), while Bengt Schönbäck suggests that grave 15 is younger than grave 12 (Schönbäck – Thunmark-Nylén 2002: 8, Fig. 11). The spearheads have shorter blades, which may represent a younger variant of the type, as mentioned regarding the Gjermundbu find. The similarity of both Valsgärde graves to Kurgan Dn-86 in Gnezdovo is also striking; in addition to a Type V sword, it contained textile fragments with silk or a long combat knife likely made in central Sweden (Vlasatý 2021). The dating of the Gnezdovo mound is assumed to be the third quarter of the 10th century (Shchedrina – Kainov 2020: 239, note 8), so we can estimate the same time horizon for Valsgärde grave 12 (Vlasatý 2021).
Fig. 25. Part of the grave goods from burial mounds 12 (1–3) and 15 (4–6) at Valsgärde.
Source: Pedersen 2014b: Pl. 63. 1–4 (1a-b, 3-4a-b, 6); Sénby Posse 2021: Figs. 22, 71 (2, 5).
A cremation grave from Hemlingby in Gästrikland contained, along with a sword featuring a bent blade, a bent spearhead, an axe, a shield boss similar to Type R563 with 19 shield clamps, and other items that have been typologically interpreted in various ways (Bellander 1939: 109; Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: 500; Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Gä 84b*). The axe head appears closer to Type H (personal communication with Tomáš Vlasatý). The spearhead, due to its deformed state, lacks an unequivocal typological classification. It appears relatively long and slender with a uniformly rounded transition from the socket to the blade with a midrib, as evidenced by the drawing available in the SHM catalogue. Based on the axe head combined with the R563 shield boss, the creation of this grave could be assumed to be somewhere in the middle or beginning of the second half of the 10th century. One Type V sword from Grave 504 at the Ire, Hellvi cemetery on Gotland was found along with two Petersen Type E spearheads without socket decoration (Thunmark-Nylén 1995: Fig. 195c. 1–2; 2000: 435–436). Petersen Type E corresponds to variant VI.4 according to Bergljot Solberg, which she subsequently divided into three subtypes based on the form of the neck cross-section – VI.4A/B/C (Petersen 1919: 26–27, Fig. 12–13; Solberg 1984: 58–60, Fig. 11). Jan Petersen indicated that this spear type first began to be used in Norway at the end of the 8th century, with a greater expansion in the first half of the 9th century (Petersen 1919: 26), which is confirmed by Bergljot Solberg, though she simultaneously assumes its use may have persisted into the first half of the 10th century (Solberg 1984: 66). Subtype VI.4A, registered in Sweden with approximately 80 finds, covers the period between 800–1000, while finds from Birka are dated to 850–950 (Solberg 1984: 66–67). Subtype VI.4B is dated to the period 800–850 in Norway; Swedish and Finnish spearheads of this type appear younger and were still used in the 10th century (Solberg 1984: 67–68). In addition to these items, the grave contained two ringed pins of Types 1 and 2 according to Thunmark-Nylén, a belt buckle of Type 1 and a strap end of Type 1, including a decorative tassel, and several other objects (Thunmark-Nylén 1984: 6; Thunmark-Nylén 1995: Figs. 195a. 1–5, 195b). According to F. Androshchuk, the dating of the grave falls into the so-called Late Birka Period, which covers the time horizon from approximately 875 to 975, with graves from Birka and Valsgärde also corresponding to this dating (Androshchuk 2014: 147, 166).
Swords from the sites of Utanmyra in Dalarna (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Dr 14) and Östveda in Gästrikland (Androshchuk 2014: Cat. No. Gä 28*) are considered by F. Androshchuk to be chronologically younger, as their find context is associated with Type R565 bosses, axe heads of Types M and L, and Type M spearheads (Androshchuk 2014: 166). The Utanmyra burial is hypothesized to date to approximately 1000 AD, while the Östveda assemblage is dated from the 10th to the early 11th century (Serning 1966: 37; Thålin-Bergman 1998: 500). Type M spearheads are among the chronologically latest variants of this class of militaria and, as stated by Jan Petersen, date to the 11th century. Petersen underscores their “Oriental” aesthetic and widespread occurrence across Sweden, Finland, and Russia (Petersen 1919: 35). Bergljot Solberg posits that this type (designated as VII.3A in her typology) emerges around 1000 AD and remained in use throughout the first half of the 11th century (Solberg 1984: 100). However, some researchers suggest a slightly earlier appearance during the final decades of the 10th century (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 175). The chronological range for Petersen Type M axes is notably broad; while the earliest specimens appear around 950 AD, their utilization persisted until approximately 1300 AD (Vlasatý 2016). Consequently, both graves could theoretically have been established during the final quarter of the 10th century or shortly after the turn of the millennium.
Finds from Denmark are dated predominantly to the second to third quarter of the 10th century (Pedersen 2014a; 2014b; Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322). As Anne Pedersen notes, swords of Types S, V, and X appear most frequently in Danish find material together with other militaria, such as axes of Petersen Types H, I, K and/or spearheads of Petersen Types I, K, and G, as well as R562/563 shield bosses and equestrian equipment consisting of various types of bridles, stirrups, and spurs (Pedersen 2014a: 150–151). In the case of the sword type we are studying, we record only one shield boss, specifically R562, in combination with a Type H or I axe head from Grave 3 at Stengade I (Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 132-3, Pl. 13. 3–8). The grave inventory also included equestrian equipment, which, as Anne Pedersen notes, is similar to that found in graves 12 and 15 at Valsgärde (Pedersen 2014a: 157, Pl. 14. 1–4, 62. 1–6). The grave could thus have been created during the second, possibly third quarter of the 10th century. One Type K axe head originates from Hoby (Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 95). In two cases, we record Type V swords combined with Type G spearheads, or Type IX.1A according to B. Solberg, who suggests that in Norway this spear type was used after 950 until the end of the Viking Age, while in Sweden and Finland they appear only in the 11th century (Solberg 1984: 123–124, Fig. 16). Swords of Combination Type 11 from Hedeby are dated by Alfred Geibig to the first half of the 10th century (Geibig 1989: 246–247); however, the fact remains that their find context is not very clear, as we know with certainty of only one grave find containing skeletal remains, a knife, a bead, and a sword (Arents – Eisenschmidt 2010: 41). The sword from Böel was found with a spearhead, and the sword from Süderbrarup with a Type H axe head (Pedersen 2014b: Cat. No. 362, 388-I). All Type V swords from the territory of present-day Denmark that are grave finds also contained equestrian equipment, among which we can mention, for example, stirrups of several types. From three graves, we know stirrups of the Stengade type (Pedersen 2014a: 112–114; 2014b: 141–142, Cat. Nos. 92, 95, 132). In two graves, stirrups of the Farsø type were found (Pedersen 2014a: 114–115; 2014b: 142, Cat. Nos. 179, 194). From Schleswig-Holstein, we record a find of Ladby type stirrups only in the grave from Böel (Pedersen 2014a: 109–111; 2014b: 144, Cat. No. 362).
The grave from Eyrarteigur in Iceland contained, along with a sword, a spearhead, an axe head close to Petersen Type I, and a shield boss (Eldjárn 2016: 232). The dating of Type I axes is usually given for the entire 10th century (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 163). The grave also contained a fragment of an English silver coin of King Eadwig, minted between 955–959 (Ísberg 2020: 64); alternatively, the coin is dated between 955–975, i.e., to the reign of King Eadwig or his successor, King Edgar (Eldjárn 2016: 232). Furthermore, a horse skeleton was present in the grave, samples of which were subjected to radiocarbon analysis, placing the date between 935–1015 (Eldjárn 2016: 232). Finnish finds of Type V swords are dated to the period 925 to 1025 (Moilanen 2015: 255). Three originate from graves (KM 6245 A:1, KM 10390:5, KM 15175:1), and another six are attributed a possible grave context (KM370, KM30870:1, KM708, KM3301:1, KM7961:1, KM31550:1).
In the Old Rus’ environment, Petersen Type V swords are typically dated to the middle to the last quarter of the 10th century (Kainov 2012: 42). They were deposited in graves along with other militaria such as spearheads and axe heads, and we also have evidence of the deposition of archery equipment, primarily arrowheads, and in several cases, parts of bows and quivers have been preserved (Karger 1958; Kirpichnikov 1966b, 2000; Shitov 1992; Platonova 1998; Liwoch 2005; Zozulya 2007; Plavinski 2009; Kainov 2019b; Syta – Mudrytska 2023).
Most frequent are spearheads, of which we record Kirpichnikov Type I (J. P. E) in five cases, found in graves at the sites of Kashina, Vakhrusheva, Zaozerye, and Kurgan Dn-4 in Gnezdovo (Kirpichnikov 1966b: spears – Cat. Nos. 8–9, 24, 30; Kainov 2019b: 122). The dating of this variant for the territory of Kyivan Rus’ falls between the end of the 9th and the first half of the 11th century (Kirpichnikov 1966b: 9). From the Gnezdovo Kurgan Dn-86 comes a spearhead of Type III (Kainov 2019b: Fig. 43.3), which, however, according to S. Kainov, may already represent a local product combining elements of Nordic variants of Petersen Type G spearheads and certain kinds of Type V according to Kirpichnikov, which have connotations with the nomadic environment (Kainov 2019b: 129). In Kurgan C-41, two fragmentary specimens were found, one of which may belong to Kirp. Type III (Petersen F) and the second to Kirp. Type I (Kainov 2019b: 134–135). A third piece, reportedly similar to the point from Kurgan Dn-86, is also believed to originate from the same mound (Kainov 2019b: 134–135).
Axes of various types are certainly attested in six graves, with as many as four finds originating from the nomadic environment, specifically Types I and II according to Kirpichnikov (Kirpichnikov 1966b: Fig. 6). Such axes are known in graves at cemeteries from the sites of Vakhrusheva, Gnezdovo – Dn-4, Kyiv 108, and Pidhirtsi (Karger 1958: 170; Kirpichnikov 1966b: axes – Cat. No. 3; Kainov 2019b: 144; Liwoch 2005: 54). Two additional axes are known from Zaozerye and Udrai (Kirpichnikov 1966b: axes – Cat. No. 150; Platonova 1998: 378). The deposition of an axe and spearheads in graves is also recorded from mounds at the sites of Cherma, Tengushevo, and Haradzilava, but without more specific typological classification (Shitov 1992: 116; Kirpichnikov 2000: 7–8; Plavinski 2009: 15).
Gnezdovo mounds containing Type V swords are dated between the third and fourth quarter of the 10th century based on burial rites and grave goods (Kainov 2019b: 64–66). In the case of Kurgan Dn-4, the burial is dated between 970–980, as wood from tree trunks felled likely during the 960s to the early 970s was used for the construction of the burial chamber (Kainov 2019b: 67).
Fig. 26. Grave goods from the Gnezdovo Kurgan Dn-4.
Source: Avdusin – Pushkina 1988: Figs. 5, 6.
Complex 5 from mound 6 at the Zaozerye cemetery, containing a Type V sword along with a Kirpichnikov Type V axe head and a Kirpichnikov Type I spearhead (Raudonikas 1930: Fig. 38, 40), is dated to the 10th century (Kirpichnikov 1966a: Cat. No. 40; 1966b: Cat. Nos. 30, 150). Spearheads of Kirpichnikov Type I correspond to Petersen Type E and represent one of the most widespread forms of thrusting polearms in Viking Age Europe (Kainov 2019b: 121–122). In the Old Rus’ environment, they dominate in the Southeastern Ladoga region, as evidenced by their presence in graves alongside Type V swords at the sites of Kashina and Vakhrusheva (Kirpichnikov 1966b: Cat. Nos. 8–9, 24). They are dated from the end of the 9th to the first half of the 11th century (Kainov 2019b: 122). Kirpichnikov Type V axes are known in the Old Rus’ milieu from the settlements of Sarskoye, Suprutskoye, Staraya Ladoga, and Gnezdovo (Kainov 2019b: 149). This type is close to Petersen variant C, which in Norway dates from the end of the Migration Period to the beginning of the 10th century; Old Rus’ specimens are considered a developmental form, with the oldest examples dating to the late 8th to early 9th century, and younger types to the fourth quarter of the 10th century (Kainov 2019b: 149–150).
Graves from mounds at the sites of Mikhailovskoye, Gnezdovo, Shestovytsia, and Tengushevo contained, along with swords, scabbard chapes with a bird motif. Three specimens belong to Androshchuk Type 3a: the find from Mikhailovskoye is fragmentary, the Gnezdovo find from the destroyed mound is preserved only as an impression, and the third from Shestovytsia is preserved in a complete state (Zozulya 2007: 29–30, Fig. 9.3; Kainov 2009: 90–91, Photo 3; Syta – Mudrytska 2023: 113, 120). From the Shokshinsky cemetery in Tengushevo comes an unspecified chape with a bird motif, which may thus belong to Androshchuk variant 3a or 3b (Shitov 1992: 116; 1994: 45; Androshchuk 2014: Fig. 71). Chapes of this type are dated to the second half of the 10th century, but their use likely continued until its end, with the type appearing in the Baltic region as late as the 11th century (Androshchuk 2014: 118). Furthermore, a silver dirham minted in 940–941 was found in the Shokshinsky cemetery (Shitov 1992: 116), suggesting that the grave likely did not originate earlier than after 950. The sword from the chamber grave in Udrai in the Novgorod Oblast was also found together with a silver Samanid dirham of Caliph Nuh ibn Mansur minted between 976–997, a silver pendant in the form of a cross, and a Kirpichnikov Type IV axe (Platonova 1998: 378–379, Figs. 5. 1–2, 4, 6. 3). The dating of Kirpichnikov Type IV axes in the Old Rus’ environment is placed from the 10th to the first half of the 11th century (Kotowicz 2018: 94, 4.5.9a). As in the case of the destroyed mound from Gnezdovo, where a cross pendant was also found, we could consider the origin of the Udrai grave complex to be in the late fourth quarter of the 10th century, or possibly just after the year 1000. N. I. Platonova dates chamber grave KH-5 from Udrai to the first half of the 11th century (Platonova 1998: 379).
The inventory of grave no. 108 in Kyiv contained a mixture of objects from the nomadic and Norse environments (Duczko 2004: 221), including a horse skeleton along with a Kirpichnikov Type II axe (Karger 1958: 170, Fig. 23; Kirpichnikov 1966b: axes – Cat. No. 55), several silver plaques of various sizes with an oriental palmette motif, ten glass gaming pieces, a silver dress pin, and 40 silver dirhams (Karger 1958: 170–172; Duczko 2004: 221). Four coins were identified as dirhams of Nasr ibn Ahmad (914–943), one dated to the year 900 of Ismail ibn Ahmad (892–907), and the rest of the coins were reportedly lost (Karger 1958: 171). Kirpichnikov Type II axes are typically dated to the 10th to early 11th century (Kirpichnikov 1966b: 35). The same type of axe was also found in Gnezdovo Kurgan Dn-4 (Fig. 26), dated between 970–980 (Kainov 2019b: 67, 144, Fig. 46). Similarly, the Shestovytsia chamber grave 110 in mound XXV contained a horse skeleton, as well as two human skeletons (male and female); among the militaria, we can mention arrowheads, skeletal remains of a bow, and metal parts of a quiver (Androshchuk – Zotsenko 2012: 268). The grave also included part of the equestrian equipment in the form of two oval-shaped stirrups, which typologically belong to Kirpichnikov Type I (Syta – Mudrytska 2023: 113, 122–123) and occur in the Old Rus’ environment in the period 900–1000 (Kirpichnikov 1973: 47). Stirrups of the same number and type are also known from Gnezdovo Kurgan Dn-4 (Avdusin – Pushkina 1988: 26, Fig. 5.6). The assemblage of these objects may thus indicate that the graves could have originated somewhere between the third and fourth quarters of the 10th century.
The Type V sword from Pidhirtsi, originating from mound 2, was found together with the skeletal remains of a man and a woman, a Kazakevičius Type IIIc scabbard chape, and a Kirpichnikov Type I axe head, as well as many other objects (Kirpichnikov 1966b: axes – Cat. No. 28; Liwoch 2005: 52, 54, Photos 17–18, 20). According to R. Liwoch, the dating of the mound falls at the end of the 10th to the first half of the 11th century (Liwoch 2005: 52).
Mati Mandel assigns Estonian finds of Type V swords to a broad chronological framework, spanning from the latter half of the 10th to the first half of the 11th century. This wide dating is necessitated by the ambiguous depositional circumstances surrounding nearly all documented specimens. The only sword amenable to more precise dating is the example recovered from an inhumation grave during the 1982 excavations at the Raatvere cemetery (Mandel 1991: 118). The sword was deposited alongside a diverse assemblage of grave goods. These include two spearheads – one identified as Petersen Type M – a bracelet with a plano-convex cross-section featuring rhomboid ornamentation, and a penannular brooch with star-shaped terminals. Furthermore, the grave yielded an unspecified coin dated to the period between 1002 and 1024 (Mandel 1991: 118). Based on this evidence, Mandel attributes the establishment of the burial to the first half of the 11th century. This chronological assessment is supported both by the numismatic terminus post quem and the presence of the Type M spearhead.
Petersen Type V swords from the Baltic environment are dated between the second half of the 10th and the first half of the 11th century (Kazakevičius 1996: 137; Tomsons 2018: 65; Goßler – Jahn 2019: 193). Most of them originate from grave complexes, where they were deposited along with spearheads and axe heads. In as many as eight cases, Type V swords were combined with long and short spearheads with a narrow, willow-leaf-shaped blade, some of which are decorated with incised lines or stepped pattern inlay (Muszianowicz 1968; Apala – Zariņa 1991; Kuniga 2000; Iwanowska – Kazakevičius 2001; Dworschak 2018; Goßler – Jahn 2019; Jahn – Ibsen 2024). From a typological perspective, these spearheads can be assigned to Petersen Type E, or variant VI.4 according to Bergljot Solberg (Petersen 1919: 26–27, Figs. 12–13; Solberg 1984: 58–60, Fig. 11). According to Vytautas Kazakevičius, Type E occurred in the Baltic environment between the years 800 and 1050 (Kazakevičius 1999: 196). Norbert Goßler dates East Prussian specimens to the 10th–11th centuries, noting that the oldest types could have appeared there as early as the late 9th century (Goßler 2014: 6). We record only seven distinct types of axes, with the mound at Rokantiškės yielding four axe heads comparable to Kotowicz Types IIB.1.20 (Musianowicz 1968: Fig. 6. d; Kotowicz 2018: 59–60), IIB.1.22 (Musianowicz 1968: Fig. 6. b-c; Kotowicz 2018: 61–62), and IIB.5.14 (Musianowicz 1968: Fig. 5. a; Kotowicz 2018: 94). The first type was used primarily in Eastern Europe, appearing in Lithuania at the beginning of the 10th century and occurring until the 13th century (Kotowicz 2018: 59). The second type appears in the northern part of Eastern Europe only at the end of the 10th century and was used until the end of the 13th century, with some finds from Estonia dating as late as the 14th–15th centuries (Kotowicz 2018: 61–62). The third type occurs exclusively in the northern parts of the former Kyivan Rus’ and in the Baltic environment, dating from the 10th to the first half of the 11th century (Kotowicz 2018: 94).
Equestrian equipment, specifically bridles, stirrups, and spurs of several types, also formed part of the grave goods. In the Rokantiškės mound, three oval-shaped stirrups were discovered; one preserved without the footplate (Musianowicz 1968: Fig. 5. b) and two others lacking the slot for the stirrup leather (Musianowicz 1968: Fig. 7. a-b). All three could be classified under Kirpichnikov Type I (Kirpichnikov 1973: Fig. 29), or Type VI according to Antanavičius (Antanavičius 1976: Fig. 1). In Lithuania, this stirrup type is dated between the 10th and 12th centuries (Antanavičius 1976: 75–76). Krystyna Musianowicz dates the creation of the mound to the very end of the 10th century but also leans towards the possibility that it occurred at the beginning of the 11th century (Musianowicz 1968: 352). According to Norbert Goßler, the Rokantiškės grave originated in the 11th century (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 193). We also record stirrups together with a Type V sword at the East Prussian site of Wiskiauten. They were found in mound graves 14/1880, 18/1880, and 11/1897 (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: Tab. 42. 6–7, 46. 5, 53. 8). Typologically, they are close to Scandinavian forms of Braathen Type B and C/C2 (Braathen 1989: 19–21, Figs. 4–6), or Ladby and Stengade (Pedersen 2014a: 109–114, Figs. 4.17, 4.18). Fedir Androshchuk also notes that Type V swords from the Prussian, as well as the Eastern European sphere generally, have a closer connection to Denmark, pointing to the occurrence of Ladby type stirrups in Wiskiauten (Androshchuk 2014: 191–192). Norbert Goßler dates Scandinavian stirrups in Prussia to the period from the end of the 9th century to the year 1000 (Goßler 2014: 4). The richly furnished grave at Priekuļu Ģūģeri contained an axe head, two spearheads with undecorated sockets (one with a long and the other with a shorter blade), a long combat knife, scales with nine weights, and six silver coins minted during the reign of the Samanid rulers Nasr ibn Ahmad (914–943) and Nuh ibn Nasr (943–954), dating to the first half of the 10th century (Apala – Zariņa 1991: 17, 20, Figs. 3. 12–14, 4. 6–8). Some items in this grave suggest similarity with Kurgan Dn-86 in Gnezdovo, the boat graves from Valsgärde (12, 15), or the grave in Rösta. The axe head could be assigned to Kotowicz Type IB.1.20 (Apala – Zariņa 1991: Fig. 4. 10; Kotowicz 2018: 58). The closest analogies are found directly in Latvia, where these axes are dated between the 11th and 12th centuries (Atgāzis 1964: Figs. 3. 1, 6. 4; Kotowicz 2018: 58). Additionally, a relatively rare type of openwork scabbard chape with a central lily motif was found with the sword; A. Tomsons views this as a subtype of his Type I (Tomsons 2018: 143, Fig. 109. 13), close to Androshchuk’s group of Type 3 chapes (Androshchuk 2014: Fig. 71). Given the nature of the grave inventory, Zigrīda Apala and Anna Zariņa assume that the man buried there must have been a representative of the upper social stratum of the Latgalians in the 11th century (Apala – Zariņa 1991: 26).
The sword from Aglonas Kristapiņi was found along with an undecorated spearhead and an axe head close to Kotowicz Type IA.1.19 (Kuniga 2000: 68–69, Figs. XXII. 11, XXVI. 9; Kotowicz 2018: 109). According to Atgāzis, this axe type does not appear in Latvia before the 10th century and was used until the beginning of the 11th century (Atgāzis 2019: 109). The sword from this grave is dated to around the year 1000 and is also the only double-edged sword found at the cemetery (Kuniga 2000: 68). An openwork chape of Tomsons Type II (Tomsons 2018: Fig. 113. 2), which is close to Androshchuk Type 3 (Androshchuk 2014: Fig. 70), was also found with the sword. The only preserved axe head deposited with a Type V sword from East Prussia is known from mound 174 at the Wiskiauten cemetery (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 351, Tab. 193. 2). Typologically, it is closest to Type Lunow (Kotowicz IIIB.5.30) (Kotowicz 2018: 110). Analogies can be found predominantly in the northwestern Slavic environment, to which the origin of this axe type is attributed, but several specimens also come from Sweden or Denmark and date from the second half of the 10th to the 11th century, despite the lack of clear evidence for its occurrence in the second half of the 11th century (Kotowicz 2018: 110). Along with the sword and axe, mound 174 yielded a fragment of an unspecified scabbard chape and a Petersen Type E spearhead with a socket decorated with silver stepped inlay (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 351, Tab. 192. 2, Tab. 193. 1). The dating of the mound is assumed to be the second half of the 10th century (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 351). The time horizon for mounds 14/1880 and 11/1897 from Wiskiauten is given as between 950–1050 (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 334, 339). If we accept the dating of Scandinavian stirrup forms according to Norbert Goßler, we can assume their creation somewhere between 950–1000. Mound 18/1880 is dated to the period 900–1000 (Jahn – Ibsen 2024: 335). Two graves from Linkuhnen – 7/1928 and 25/1929 – are also dated to the 10th century (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 346, 355). Grave 42(A)/1929 is dated between the 10th and 11th centuries (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 357–358). Given the occurrence of a Kazakevičius Type IIIc chape, it is more likely that the grave originated in the 11th century (Goßler – Jahn 2019: 358). Chapes of this type are dated by Kazakevičius to the 11th century (Kazakevičius 1992: 100–101).
Fig. 27. Objects from Grave 30 at Priekuļu Ģūģeri, Latvia.
Source: enciklopedija.lv; photo: Roberts Kaniņš.
Fig. 28. Objects from burial mound no. 11/1897.
Source: Jahn – Ibsen 2024: Fig. 15, Tab. 53–54.
According to G. Bersu and D. M. Wilson, the grave complex from Ballateare on the Isle of Man is dated between 850–900 (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 87). This information was later adopted by other researchers (Steinforth 2015: 59). Bersu and Wilson suggested that Type V swords, when combined with other finds, occur in contexts from the late 9th and, more frequently, the 10th century (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 52). Elsewhere, they point to the morphological similarity of the sword pommels with Types D, E, and T, noting that the discussed sword should ordinarily be dated to the 10th century (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 86–87). In conclusion, they add that given the low number of swords from Norway and the unspecified number outside this territory with unclear find contexts, a more precise dating of Type V swords is impossible (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 87). The burial mound contained three spearheads along with the sword (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 58, Fig. 35). The first is reportedly typologically similar to Petersen variant I, with a length of 44.7 cm (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 57, Cat. No. 5; Steinforth 2015: Fig. 25. 5), while the second resembles Petersen Type K, with a length of 60 cm; both are considered Celtic types (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 57–58, Cat. No. 6; Steinforth 2015: Fig. 25. 6). The third spearhead lacks a specific typological description, reaches a length of only 26.3 cm, and is considered an import from Norway (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 59, Cat. No. 7; Steinforth 2015: Fig. 25. 7). The socket preserves decoration in the form of a herringbone pattern, and below it, on the lower side, a triangular pattern made of non-ferrous metal wires (Bersu – Wilson 1966: Pl. XII, C; Steinforth 2015: 24). Projecting bronze rivets with a diameter of 0.3 cm are situated on the lateral sides of the socket (Steinforth 2015: 24). Typologically, the third exemplar most closely resembles Petersen Type I (Solberg VII.2A; Solberg 1984: 84).
The closest analogies are found directly in Norway, one being the previously mentioned find from Gjermundbu, as well as both Swedish spearheads from Valsgärde 12 and 15. The length of all three points does not exceed 40 cm, and they may thus represent later variants of this type. A difference between the Ballateare spear and the other three is discernible in the decoration. The spearheads from Gjermundbu and Valsgärde feature lozenge decoration, whereas the Ballateare point bears a herringbone pattern. A similar pattern is exhibited by another Norwegian exemplar classified under Type I, originating from the site of Bygland, Kviteseid, Telemark (C27454), with a length of up to 59.9 cm. In addition to the spearheads and sword, a shield boss assigned to Type R563 is recorded from this grave complex (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 59–60, Fig. 36, Pl. XV a). Analogies cited include bosses from the Scandinavian sphere (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 60, note 198) and a find from Islandbridge, Dublin (Bersu – Wilson 1966: 60, note 197). However, the fact remains that the mentioned Dublin boss is assigned to Type R562, not R563 (Shetelig 1940a: 34, 35 – Fig. 14). Based on the drawing provided by Bersu and Wilson, the shield boss from Ballateare visually corresponds more closely to Type R562, where one can observe the dome rising into a higher arch toward the upper edge, whereas Type R563 has a smaller dome compared to the preceding type (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 185). Based on the foregoing, the Ballateare burial mound can be dated approximately to the end of the first half of the 10th century, or possibly the beginning of its second half. Dating the complex to before the year 900 is certainly unjustified.
The dating of the sword from Olomouc, given its condition and undetermined find circumstances, is possible only approximately to the 10th century or the beginning of the 11th century (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 324). In the case of the sword pommel from Drohiczyn, Krystyna Musianowicz states that the pommel originates from a settlement layer dated to the 11th century (Muszianowicz 1969: 151), while Piotr Pudło adds that the sword could have been manufactured much earlier, sometime at the turn of the 10th–11th centuries or in the first half of the 11th century, which would correspond to the chronology of swords from the Old Rus’ and Baltic environments.
Swords from Old Hungarian burial grounds in Čierna nad Tisou and Székesfehérvár are dated between the second third of the 10th and the beginning of the 11th century (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 323–324). It is known that the sword from Čierna nad Tisou comes from a grave, but its find circumstances are not entirely clear, as its discovery occurred during soil transport for the construction of the “Friendship Railway” (Trať družby), along with other items from approximately 15 destroyed graves (Nevizánsky 2012: 75). The objects were transported to the East Slovak Museum in Košice as a single lot, which prevented their sorting according to specific grave complexes (Nevizánsky 2012: 75). Identified items included arrowheads, bits of various shapes, several stirrups with straight and oval footplates, an amphora, a sabre blade, and several smaller iron objects, likely components of a quiver (Pastor 1952: Figs. 248–249; Nevizánsky 2012: 76–77). The sword from Grave 36 from Székesfehérvár-Rádiótelep was found together with three arrowheads of different forms, iron parts of a quiver, five iron circular objects, a buckle, and iron components of a bucket (Bakay 1965: Pl. IV).
Double-edged swords of Nordic or Eastern European provenance in Southeastern Europe are dated between the 9th and the mid-11th century and are associated primarily with the trade or military activities of Scandinavians and Kyivan Rus’; alternatively, they may result from the recruitment of members into the so-called Varangian Guard by the Byzantine Empire or the trade-military activities of the Pechenegs (Yotov 2011: 40; 2016: 249). Since both swords from Romania and Bulgaria are stray finds and the circumstances of their discovery are unknown, the dating is rather tentative, and it can be assumed that they appeared in this region sometime between the second half of the 10th and the beginning of the 11th century (Șova 2020: 163). The sword originating from the Sliven region has a dating listed in the literature between the second half of the 9th century and the 10th century, as it is typologically classified as Type H/I, despite being analogously compared to the Albești specimen (Zlatkov 2014: 139). However, as stated above, given that the pommel cap is semicircular and the structural parts of the hilt bear fragments of silver, copper, and brass decoration, we can assume the sword belongs to Petersen Type V, and its dating could be estimated to the same timeframe as the sword from Albești.
Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that Petersen Type V swords likely do not appear prior to the turn of the first and second quarters of the 10th century, and the vast majority of them enter the archaeological record during the second half of the 10th century, while their use may have persisted into the first quarter of the 11th century.
Fig. 29. Grave goods from Székesfehérvár – Rádiótelep 36.
Source: Bakay 1965: Pl. IV.
VI. Contemporary Depictions and Sword Miniatures
The sword, in itself, is not a weapon exclusive to the Viking Age; its history commences much earlier, in the Bronze Age. Just as entire civilizations evolved over the course of history, so too did the sword. These objects are known not merely as functional weapons intended for combat, but also as prestigious military artefacts which often reflected, inter alia, the social status of their bearer or served as insignia of royal authority. Consequently, it is unsurprising that references to swords appear not only in Icelandic sagas but also in various legal codes and other contemporaneous texts (Vlasatý 2020d). Furthermore, we encounter depictions of swords in various manuscripts (Androshchuk 2014: 166-167) or find them represented as miniature objects (Gardeła 2021). Many Viking Age swords are rendered with relative fidelity in contemporary iconography, allowing us to identify hilt forms featuring trilobate or triangular pommels from the Carolingian milieu of the 9th century, or swords resembling types N, R/S, X, and Z (Androshchuk 2014: 166-167). The only known depiction of a Type V sword is registered as a 16th century drawing, which we briefly mentioned in Section IV.
A number of surviving artefacts from the Early Middle Ages – notably coins and pendants – demonstrate sword depictions with oval, trilobate pommels close to Type V. From the environment of Kyivan Rus’, we record four so-called Heraldic Pendants originating from Russia and Ukraine. These are characterized as metal pendants bearing princely insignia on one or both sides, serving as credentials for princely officials during the 10th–11th centuries (Beletskiy 2019: 30). All four pendants are dated to the period 980–1050, corresponding to the reign of the Kyivan Rus’ Prince Volodymyr Sviatoslavych and his viceroys (Beletskiy 2019: 30). One side typically displays Prince Volodymyr’s tryzub (trident), while the reverse features figural symbols, in three instances representing swords transitioning from the blade into a Thor’s hammer motif (Beletskiy 2019: Tab. 1, Cat. Nos. 50, 62, 93). Of these, the pommel form cannot be discerned on two pendants (Beletskiy 2014: Fig. 5-6), while the third features a pommel divided into five lobes (Beletskiy 2019: Fig. 3. 50). The fourth exemplar, originating from Sedniv in the Chernihiv Oblast of Ukraine, illustrates a sword with a two-part pommel and a pommel cap divided into three lobes, with the blade transitioning into a spearhead-like motif featuring long, leaf-like or winged projections at the sides (Beletskiy 2014: 14, Cat. No. 89, Fig. 7; 2019: Tab. 1, Cat. No. 89).
Further depictions of swords with trilobate pommels akin to Type V or W are found on three coins. One is a Byzantine miliaresion of Emperors Constantine VII and Romanos II, dated between 945 and 959, originating from the Erilov hoard (Dobrovolskiy et al. 1991: Cat. No. 74). Engraved on one side of the coin is a sword symbol with a two-part pommel and a pommel cap divided into three segments by two oblique lines, and a straight crossguard that transitions into curved arms, these same arms also projecting from the outer sides of the crossguard (Dobrovolskiy et al. 1991: Fig. 12. 3, 15). I. G. Dobrovolskiy suggests the sword’s affinity with Types V and W (Dobrovolskiy et al. 1991: 52). The second coin that supposedly displays a trilobate semicircular pommel is a silver Samanid dirham of Nuh Ibn Mansur (943–954), discovered at the site of Gorovlyany in Belarus (Dobrovolskiy et al. 1991: Cat. No. 29, Fig. 2. 22). The third coin is a silver dirham discovered in 2010 near the village of Bolshoye Chervonnoye in the Smolensk Oblast of Western Russia, found under circumstances not precisely documented, and is currently part of a private collection (Sergeev 2016: 114-115). The coin is bent, features a crack at the bottom, and has a riveted white metal loop on the opposite side, suggesting the dirham likely served as a pendant (Sergeev 2016: 114). In the centre of one side of the coin is a graffiti representation of a vertically positioned sword, with the two-part pommel pointing upwards and the blade tip pointing downwards (Sergeev 2016: 114, Fig. 1-2). To the right of the crossguard, a line formed by two incised bars tapers towards the tip in the shape of the letter S. According to V. Yu. Sergeev, this motif resembles a triangular battle standard (Sergeev 2016: 115). The author also indicates that, due to the shape of the pommel, the sword may be assigned to Type V or W (Sergeev 2016: 114). The pommel is depicted as two-part, likely with an oval pommel cap, a section of which is obscured by the riveted loop. The coin’s minting is estimated to the early 10th century, but due to its wear, a more precise dating of its creation is not feasible (Sergeev 2016: 114).
In addition to the pendants and coins, there are also miniature sword pendants, some of which feature an oval pommel composed of an upper guard and a pommel cap divided into three segments by oblique vertical lines. Two such artefacts, categorized as casual finds made of copper alloy, originate from unknown locations in Denmark. These miniatures resemble the hilts of Types E, V, and W (Gardeła 2021: 43, Cat. Nos. 27, 28). A third miniature comes from Norway. This item was found in Rønvik, Bodø, in Nordland county (Ts4306/f), within two mixed grave assemblages containing male human skeletons, two bone combs, a needle case, a Petersen Type Y sword, a Petersen Type G spearhead, and an R563 shield boss (Ts4306). The sword miniature, crafted from bone (the Unimus portal also allows for wood), is preserved fragmentarily, featuring an incomplete blade/scabbard, a straight crossguard, and part of a two-piece pommel with a straight upper guard and an incomplete semicircular pommel cap (Gardeła 2021: 44, Cat. No. 1, Fig. 3). Both the Unimus portal and Leszek Gardeła state that the miniature bears the closest resemblance to the hilt shape of Petersen Type V swords.
Beyond sword miniatures, several wooden children’s toys imitating actual swords have been recovered. This category includes up to 74 toy swords featuring stylized pommels divided into an upper guard and a three- to five-lobed pommel cap. These toys are purported to represent Petersen Types S, T2, and V, as well as single-piece semicircular pommels resembling Petersen Type X. Dating from the 10th–11th centuries, these finds originate from Novgorod (Singh – Stepanov 2020: 184-185, Figs. 1.1-6, 2.1-3). Also stemming from Novgorod is the find of a wooden wheel with a diameter of 10.4 cm, dated to the first half of the 11th century (Singh – Stepanov 2020: 187). Engraved on the wheel’s surface are two swords with pommels composed of an upper guard and a pommel cap divided into three segments, interpreted as a possible representation of Type V (Singh – Stepanov 2020: 187, Fig. 4.2).
A noteworthy find in this context is undoubtedly the miniature wooden sword hilt from Birka, brought to our attention by Sven Kalmring and currently housed in the State Historical Museum in Stockholm (SHM). The object measures 9.2 cm in length, 4.4 cm in width, and 1.1 cm in thickness. The pommel is semi-circular in form, with the lateral sides of the crown truncated to imitate the trilobate pommels of functional swords – an effect further accentuated by several incisions on one side. These take the form of two oblique horizontal lines with approximately four smaller horizontal dashes positioned between them (fig. 31: a). The demarcation between the pommel cap and the base is indicated on one side by a faint, barely discernible horizontal incision (fig. 31: b). A relatively thick grip with a circular cross-section connects the pommel and the cross-guard. The cross-guard itself is lenticular in shape; one of its faces is likely adorned with two parallel rows of circular indentations (fig. 31: b). It is evident from the descriptive analysis and photographic documentation available via the SHM portal that the hilt was intentionally manufactured without a blade (fig. 31: c), and its surface currently exhibits significant signs of erosive degradation.
Naturally, not all the aforementioned instances of depictions, graffiti, or sword miniatures necessarily represent Type V exclusively. It is vital to consider that the representation of trilobate pommels may also denote other sword variants, such as Types E, T, U, and W. Simultaneously, however, such iconographic evidence provides us with insight that swords equipped with two-part pommels featuring pommel caps divided into three segments must have been amongst the relatively favored military possessions of the Early Medieval warrior elite during the course of the 10th century.
Fig. 30. Depictions of swords with trilobate pommels.
1. Sedniv (Beletskiy 2014: Cat. No. 89, Fig. 7); 2. Gorovlyany (Sergeev 2016: 114, Fig. 1); 3. Erilov Hoard (Dobrovolskiy et al. 1991: Fig. 15); 4. Rønvik (Gardeła 2021: Fig. 3).
Fig. 31. Miniature of a sword hilt from Birka.
Source: SHM Stockholm, photo: Sven Kalmring.
Conclusion
Out of 159 swords subjected to analysis in this study, approximately 122 specimens are proposed to belong to the type under investigation. The remaining 37 are cited as candidates, for which we considered the morphological and decorative attributes of preserved hilt components exhibiting features characteristic of Petersen Type V. Alternatively, some of these swords are classified under this type in external works but lack the detailed documentation or visual appendix required for their unequivocal attribution to the studied type.
As deduced from the preceding discussion, Petersen Type V swords do not constitute a homogeneous assemblage; rather, they exhibit considerable diversity. Variations are evident not only in the morphology of certain pommels but also in their decorative execution. The closest cognate of the investigated type is Petersen Type T2. However, discrepancies are encountered even here, which, when strictly adhering to the established typological standards for both types, manifest as an intermingling of elements that defy the standardized classification framework. It is imperative to acknowledge that Jan Petersen established his typology based on swords from the Norwegian context, a framework that is not necessarily applicable to all hilt types encountered beyond the Norwegian, or indeed, the wider Scandinavian sphere. Evidence for this is manifested in swords that developed independently of Scandinavia or potentially represent localized imitations. Consequently, some swords may theoretically be regarded as weapons whose form or decoration reflects Nordic manufacturing traditions, yet their production subsequently occurred in workshops across East-Central and Eastern Europe. Here, these Nordic traditions evolved into specimens that deviate in certain specifics from classic Type V swords (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 324). In order to gain a more profound understanding of this type, it should not be viewed as an isolated group within an artificially constructed typology. Conversely, a comprehensive assessment must incorporate the other hilt variants of Petersen’s classification, specifically Types E, S, R, U, T1, T2, and Z, and subject them to deeper analysis. This approach allows for a more compendious overview of the interrelationships between them.
While the pommels of Types E, U, T1, T2, and V are unified by their division into three segments, with the lateral lobes resembling stylized animal heads, the construction of the pommels of Types V and T2 exhibits shared characteristics not only with Type H/I but also with certain exemplars of Types R (C257, T20362) and Z (Androshchuk 2014: Pl. 182. a; SHM 22293/107495_HST). The stepped decoration, predominantly associated with Type V, can be attested on a minimum of three Type H/I specimens with a preserved pommel cap and an additional five that survived without the cap but are ascribed to Type H/I in the scholarly literature. The earlier chronology of Types E and H/I might suggest the development of Type V from Type E in terms of pommel morphological characteristics, and its evolution from Type H/I in terms of hilt construction and decoration. Jan Petersen dated Types H and I swords to the second half of the 9th and the 10th centuries, with Type H generally perceived as the older and Type I as the younger type (Androshchuk 2014: 63). Conversely, the stepped decoration of alternating triangles and rhomboids is recorded only on a smaller number of swords that can be reliably attributed to Type H/I. This stands in contrast to the type under review, which features this decorative mode in over 20 documented cases. This disparity prompts the question of whether the pattern of alternating stepped triangles and rhomboids could have represented a developmental stage in the ornamentation of younger Type H/I variants, potentially derived from Type V, during their operational lifespan. Furthermore, it is apparent that the ornamentation of Types V and T2 is related in some manner. The widespread use of this pattern is also evidenced by finds of spearheads of several types decorated with geometric designs of alternating triangles, rhomboids, or stirrups (Hošek – Košta – Žákovský 2021: 322).
Fig. 32. Reconstruction of the structural components of the sword hilt from the Norwegian site of Torblå Ulvik. Source: Igor Grebyonkin.
Appendix
The catalogue of Petersen Type V swords, provided via the link below in tabular format, contains information related to the individual sword specimens. This includes metrical data, inventory numbers, find context, type of decoration utilized, inscriptions, and marks on the blades, etc.
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who contributed their assistance, consultation, or photographs during the compilation of this article. Specifically, I am grateful to: Sven Kalmring from the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm, Sergei Kainov from the State Historical Museum in Moscow, Melanie Wrigglesworth from the University Museum of Bergen, Ján Rákoš from the East Slovak Museum in Košice, Ny Björn Gustafsson from the Swedish National Heritage Board, Mikko Moilanen, Indrek Jets, and Radoslav Čambal from the Archaeological Museum in Bratislava. My sincere gratitude is also extended to Tomáš Vlasatý for his consultations and for the opportunity to publish this article on the Forlǫg Project portal, as well as to Diego Flores Cartes, the author of the scheme drawing.
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