Introduction
Multiple fullering on sword blades is encountered relatively frequently in the Roman period (Behmer 1939: Pl. XV; Bemmann – Bemmann 1998: Pls 35–6; Biborski 1999: 83; Biborski – Ilkjær 2006: 158–9; Ørsnes 1988: 49, Pls. 71–4), after which it essentially disappears during the Migration Period. This feature gained significant popularity in 13th–16th century swords (e.g. Głosek 1973: 84, 98, 102; Hošek et al. 2019: 76, 118, 143, 189, 191, 226, 255, 268, 277, 280, 310, 333, 336, 340, 348–9, 375, 383-4; Kazakevičius 1996: 89; Oakeshott 1991: 96, 105, 118, 121) and was also employed on smallswords, rapiers, and sabres of the 16th–19th centuries (Mohamed 2008: 58, 100; Šindelář – Šindelář 2018; Šindelář et al. 2023). It is therefore logical to adopt terminology and methodologies derived from these periods, during which multiple fullers reached their zenith. In English literature, the terms “double fuller” or “paired fuller” have become established to describe the phenomenon discussed below; similarly, German scholarship employs “double blood groove” (Doppelblutrinne) or “double hollow-grinds” (Doppelhohlkehlen), while Russian terminology uses “double fuller” (двойной дол).
In an effort to increase market diversity, create aesthetically captivating pieces, or out of pure interest in whether double fullers completely vanished during the Early Middle Ages, the topic of double-fullered swords in the 8th–12th centuries has occasionally been broached within bladesmithing and fencing circles over the past two decades. This interest is further amplified by a complete absence of mentions in several fundamental publications – not only are they missing from Petersen’s seminal work on Viking swords (Petersen 1919), Kirpichnikov’s volume on Old Rus swords (Kirpichnikov 1966), and Peirce’s popular treatment of Early Medieval swords (Oakeshott – Peirce 2002), but they are also excluded from Geibig’s blade typology (Geibig 1991: 83–90). It is evident from this that any existing double-fullered blades represent anomalous specimens situated on the periphery of established typologies.
Overall, the double fuller on Early Medieval swords remains a relatively new and overlooked subject in the literature, appearing in isolated strands of research and rarely addressed within an international framework. Regarding individual finds, the double fuller has only been described since the 1980s (Kiss 1983: 259–260). A pioneering synthesis is provided by Prasolov’s article, published in German (Prassolow 2009) and Russian (Prasolov 2011), which proposed the working designation “Ragnit type” based on the unique blade construction of the studied specimen and its analogous finds. This work was followed by Košta, who separated High Medieval pieces from Prasolov’s original list and added several overlooked Early Medieval swords, primarily newly analysed finds from the Czech Republic (Hošek et al. 2021: 66; Košta 2021: 126–7). The following text, dedicated to specialists as well as bladesmiths, practitioners, and collectors, draws extensively on the works of Prasolov and Košta, while incorporating three previously unknown finds and excluding one misclassified specimen; consequently, the corpus of European swords from the 8th–12th centuries has been refined to 10 potential items.
Fig. 1: Schematic drawing of a Petersen Type X sword with a double fuller.
Source: Košta et al. 2019: Fig. 25.
Characterisation of the Phenomenon
The investigation of sword blades with double fullers is complicated by the fact that this specific modification may not be discernible beneath corrosion layers and organic residues, and might only be identified through X-ray radiography (cf. Košta et al. 2019). Positive identification must be based on first-hand examination, photographs, or at the very least, detailed technical drawings, as certain less meticulous illustrations may erroneously suggest the existence of a double fuller where none exists (e.g. Kirpichnikov – Stalsberg 1998: 511, Fig. 2.2; Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: Fig. 3.2). Given that only a fraction of European swords have undergone rigorous examination, double fullering appears to be a marginal phenomenon within the 8th–12th century European context. Assuming a total corpus of approximately 5500 swords from this period (Vlasatý 2020a), double fullers occur in a mere 0.2% of cases. In the extensive Norwegian corpus, numbering around 3500 swords (Aannestad 2018: 147, 151), this feature is represented by only two instances. Within the Swedish material of roughly 650 weapons, it appears once (Androshchuk 2014). In Latvia, where approximately 80 swords are known from this era, one case is recorded (1.3%). Owing to the thorough examination of swords from the Czech Republic, double fullers were identified in two out of approximately ninety specimens, suggesting that it may be a more frequent feature than previously thought, though still occurring on no more than 2.5% of blades within that specific region and period.
One of the intriguing aspects of this phenomenon is the exploration of its regional distribution and chronology. Our revision identifies potential clusters, the more prominent and numerically better-represented being the continental production of Carolingian swords (Czech Republic, France, Hungary). Considering their association with Petersen types B (variants), H, and N/X, as well as the dating of grave contexts, swords in this group can be placed between the late 8th and the first half of the 10th century. Their Carolingian provenance is evidenced by their combination with the +VLFBERHT+ inscription, traditionally associated with the Frankish Empire (Stalsberg 2008). An analogous construction (a combination of a simple and a double fuller) on swords from Burgundy and Vang, Norway – the latter dated to the second and third quarters of the 10th century based on its Petersen type R hilt (Hjardar – Vike 2016: 169) – suggests that the blade of the Norwegian specimen may also have been manufactured on the Continent. The dating of the sword from Klinta, Sweden, likewise points to a later Carolingian horizon. Notable in this context is the absence of double fullers in the territories of present-day Austria (Szameit 1986), Belgium (Gava – Vlasatý 2024), Croatia (Belošević 2007; Bilogrivić 2009; 2011), Germany (Geibig 1991), the Netherlands (Ypey 1960–1961; 1962–1963; 1964; 1984) and Slovakia (Jócsik 2024), as well as their low representation in France (Delort 2017–2018), which may be a result of the current state of research. Furthermore, double fullers are absent in regions beyond the Frankish periphery which apparently met their armament requirements from other sources – particularly the British Isles (Harrison – Ó Floinn 2014; Walsh 1998), Finland (Leppäaho 1964; Moilanen 2015; 2018), Poland (Pudło 2012), and Kyivan Rus (Kainov – Novikov 2024; Kirpichnikov 1966). A second group comprises weapons from the Kaliningrad region and Latvia, which can be attributed to local Baltic types (Type T, var. VI, and Curonian type, var. II). Both swords in this group can be dated from the late 11th to the 13th century (Tomsons 2018: 93, 301). The double-grooved blade from the Stacze burial site, not included in the catalogue, probably belongs to this Baltic group (Engel 2024: Fig. 9). Whether these groups were strictly distinct or linked by some connection cannot be determined. It remains possible that this division is merely apparent, a consequence of the current state of scholarly knowledge.
Map 1: Distribution of 8th–12th century swords with double fullers in Europe.
In all recorded instances, the doubling of the fuller occurs on single-handed, double-edged swords with a total length not exceeding 100 cm. In most cases, the double fullers are positioned immediately adjacent to one another, separated by a mid-rib that gradually tapers. A notable rarity is the sword from Dobšice, whose fullers are separated by a wide, rounded ridge. Variability is also observed in the extent of the fullering itself; while on some specimens the doubling runs the entire length of the blade, on others – due to the narrowing of the blade – it transitions into a single fuller at a distance of approximately 30 cm from the guard. Furthermore, hybrid blades have been documented, combining a double fuller on one side with a single fuller on the reverse. The fullers do not necessarily originate on the blade face; in some instances, they are discernible on the tang as well. Within the Carolingian group, there are three cases where the double fuller is combined with pattern-welding, and one instance featuring a variant of the +VLFBERHT+ inscription. The uniform width of the fullers on individual items suggests that bladesmiths likely employed specialised tools during their production.
The question of the purpose and manufacturing process of this feature remains a subject of broader scholarly debate. Within the Scandinavian research and craft community (e.g. N. Anderssen, V. Vike), the view has emerged that the double fuller may be a relic of the manufacturing process, where a wider fuller is achieved by creating two smaller ones and subsequently grinding away the central rib (which, in some cases, is not entirely removed, leaving a faint raised line in the centre of the fuller). This is well represented by the sword from Lesja, Norway (C60900; Vike 2017). In such instances, double-fullered swords would have to be regarded as unfinished. However, this certainly does not apply to swords bearing inscriptions, pattern-welded panels, or those fitted with sumptuously decorated hilts. For illustration, it may be added that the sword from Pohansko is metallurgically evaluated as one of the highest-quality Early Medieval swords in the Czech Republic. From this, we can infer that on exclusive swords, double fullers represent an intentional modification. Consequently, one must ask what purpose this doubling served. Košta suggests that the aim was to increase the structural rigidity of the central portion of exceptionally wide blades (Hošek et al. 2021: 66). This logic is clearly evident in the robust finds from Pohansko, Dobšice, and Vang (Norway), whose widths exceed 6 cm. A similar strategy may have been pursued by the maker of the Ragnit sword, which is characterised by a below-average blade thickness (0.35 cm). Nevertheless, on two swords with average parameters (a width of around 5 cm and a thickness of 0.5–0.6 cm), the smith may have deliberately utilised the central rib not only for stiffness but also to increase the overall weight or to shift the point of balance to a desired position.
Furthermore, one cannot overlook the possibility that the doubling of the fuller was simply an experiment by a particular smith or grinder seeking to utilise an arresting visual style to manifest their technical proficiency. Harmonising a double fuller with a pattern-welded panel or an inscription must have been a formidable operation. Professional bladesmiths consulted on this matter agree that the essence lies in achieving a balance between forging and subsequent mechanical material removal without compromising quality. Regarding the ideal ratio of forging to scraping, craftsmen offer slightly divergent views. The consensus, however, is that the initial formation of the fullers begins with light forging. Had the fullers been merely scraped, the resulting pattern would lack proper definition and appear inconsistent, which does not align with observations of original blades. A uniform pattern is precisely the result of forging. Subsequent scraping – which, using specialised planes, need not be a slower part of the process – is then used to remove the requisite number of layers to achieve the final finish.
Finally, it is worth considering a potential correlation between double-fullered swords and other types of Early Medieval weaponry featuring multiple fullers, specifically seaxes and spearheads. Multiple narrow fullering is a relatively frequent phenomenon on seax blades, although in many cases it remains a question whether these grooves were originally inlaid with contrasting materials. This feature was particularly popular during the 7th and 8th centuries in Anglo-Saxon England (Gale 1989: 77) and the Frankish Empire (Hübener 1989; Westphal 1991: 336). Given that the mass production of these knives in the Frankish region declined towards the end of the 8th century in favour of swords (Vlasatý 2020b), a hypothesis regarding a certain continuity of craft tradition suggests itself. Thus, double fullers on the earliest types of swords might represent a waning aesthetic and technological influence from the manufacture of so-called Langsaxe, where multiple fullering was standard. Within the category of spearheads, fullering appears only sporadically, and in many cases, these involve points that were secondary forgings from sword blade fragments (Eldjárn 2016: 129–130, 343; Chudziak et al. 2011: 78; see also Czarnecka 2009–2010). Nevertheless, a winged spearhead was discovered at the Bosnian site of Rudići, the blade of which is divided by a massive central rib flanked by shallow fullers that transition in a stepped fashion towards the edges (Vinski 1977–1978: Pl. XV.2). Similar to the aforementioned swords, the morphology of this artefact suggests a Carolingian provenance.
Fig. 2: Reconstruction of a sword with a double fuller.
Author: Gaël Fabre, gaelfabre.com.
Catalogue of Finds
Site: Vang, Oppdal, Norway.
Storage and inv. no.: NTNU University Museum (Museum of Natural History and Archaeology), Trondheim, T3334.
Brief description: The sword was discovered in the 19th century within a grave context, alongside arrows, knives, equestrian equipment, and other artefacts. It is a specimen of Petersen Type R, dated to the 10th century, though it was traditionally classified as a Petersen Type S. According to official records, the sword features a blade 80 cm in length and 7 cm in width. Bladesmith Nils Anderssen, who personally examined the weapon in 2015 and shared his findings with the authors, reports that the blade measures 78.5 cm in length and 6.7 cm in width at the cross-guard. The blade exhibits a distinct distal taper: from 0.51 cm (the thickest point of the tang), decreasing to 0.48 cm (at the cross-guard) and down to 0.35 cm (at the tip). The grip is 8.6 cm long, with the tang measuring 2.67 cm in width at the guard. The cross-guard is 11.7 cm in length, with a height of 2.07–2.27 cm and a width of 1.95 cm. The two-piece pommel measures 8.7 cm in length, with a width of 2.1 cm at the upper guard and 2.7 cm at the central lobe of the pommel cap. The cap is separated from the upper guard by a beaded wire. The sword is bent, allowing for the examination of only one face. This side features a double fuller (each 1.45–1.48 cm wide) extending for the first 28 cm of the blade from the guard, before transitioning into a single fuller. Although the reverse side has not been formally documented, available photography suggests the fuller lacks a reinforcing rib; it is therefore possible that the fuller arrangement across the blade is asymmetrical.
Literature: Farbregd 1993: 77, Fig. 15; Hošek et al. 2021: 66; Petersen 1919: 145.
Additional photographs of the sword, taken by N. Anderssen, can be viewed or downloaded via the following link:
Fig. 3: Sword from Vang, Norway. Source: unimus.no.
Site: Kjølstad Vestre, Innlandet, Norway.
Storage and inv. no.: Museum of Cultural History (KHM), Oslo, C37550.
Brief description: This sword was discovered during the 20th century in a grave context, accompanied by a spear, an axe, shields, arrows, equestrian equipment, a sled, and other objects; the find is dated in the literature to the late 10th century. The weapon is a specimen of Petersen Type T2 and is preserved in four fragments, with a bent tip. According to official records, the sword has a total length of 97.5 cm and a blade width of approximately 6 cm. The hilt components are plated with copper alloy and silver. The cross-guard measures 10.8 cm in length, while the composite pommel is 8.4 cm long and 6.1 cm high. Both faces of the blade feature a double fuller (each approximately 1–1.2 cm wide), extending to a distance of roughly 30 cm from the guard before transitioning into a simple fuller.
Literature: Aannestad 2018: 157; Hjardar – Vike 2016: 169; Shchedrina 2023: 94.
Fig. 4: Sword from Kjølstad Vestre, Norway. Source: unimus.no.
Site: Klinta, Öland, Sweden.
Storage and inv. no.: The Swedish History Museum (SHM), Stockholm, SHM 25840:59:2; 263827_HST.
Brief description: A typologically problematic sword discovered in 1957 within a richly furnished double cremation grave. Androshchuk classifies the weapon as a “Special Type”, while Košta considers it closely related to “Special Type 2” or “Type U”; Thålin-Bergman assigns it to the older phase of the Viking Age. Based on a coin found at the site, a terminus post quem of 809/810 can be established; given the presence of certain jewellery items, the late 9th or early 10th century is suggested as the date for the burial. The total length of the sword is 94–95 cm, with the 5 cm wide blade broken into two fragments. The pommel is of a two-piece construction, with the tang peened over the top of the pommel cap. The centre of the blade features a pattern-welded panel and a double fuller, which appears to be present on both faces. The central rib is discernible only in the section closer to the cross-guard, which is partly due to the state of preservation. Notably, the fullers extend into the tang. Influenced by an imprecise illustration (Thålin-Bergman – Arrhenius 2005: 21), Androshchuk initially stated that the blade possessed three fullers (Androshchuk 2013: 96), a claim he subsequently corrected to two fullers (Androshchuk 2014: 103).
Literature: Androshchuk 2014: 462, Pl. 9, Cat. No. Öl 11; Beskow Sjöberg 1987: 103–5; Košta 2021: Cat. No. 2848; Svanberg 2003: 162, 252–3, Fig. 67; Thålin-Bergman – Arrhenius 2005: 42–3, Pl. 9.
Fig. 5: Sword from Klinta, Sweden. Source: samlingar.shm.se.
Site: Pécs-Magyarürög-Kápolnadomb, Hungary.
Storage and inv. no.: Janus Pannonius Museum – Department of Archaeology, Pécs, K.74.1.1.
Brief description: In 1943, the museum acquired this double-edged sword from a private collection; it presumably originated from a grave context. The sword belongs to the earlier variant of Petersen Type H and is dated to the 8th–9th centuries. There is a certain discrepancy in the literature regarding the weapon’s dimensions. Kiss records a total length of 90.3 cm (comprising a hilt length of 15.3 cm and a blade length of 74.8 cm) and a cross-guard length of 7.7 cm. Kovács’ more recent publication is considerably more detailed. According to his data, the sword is 90.5 cm long, with a blade length of 74.9 cm. The blade, which exhibits significantly corroded edges, is 5.8 cm wide and 0.5 cm thick at the cross-guard. A double fuller is present on both faces, reaching a length of 68.5 cm and a total width of 2.9 cm. Kovács’ work further indicates that the centre of the blade is occupied by a pattern-welded panel. The grip is 10.1 cm in length. The hilt components are decorated with dense vertical inlay executed with copper alloy and silver wires. The cross-guard measures 7.9 × 1.7 × 3.1 cm, while the pommel measures 6 × 3.8 × 3 cm.
Literature: Kiss 1983: 259–260; Košta 2021: Cat. No. 972; Kovács 1994–1995: 172, Fig. 11.6; Vinski 1983: 91, Fig. 6.1.
Fig. 6: Sword from Pécs-Magyarürög, Hungary. Source: Kiss 1983: 260.
Site: Burgundy (?), France.
Storage and inv. no.: Private collection, Sweden.
Brief description: This sword, currently held in a private collection, typologically corresponds to continental variants of Petersen Type B and can be assigned to the late 8th or early 9th century. The weapon entered the current collection via the dealer Thomas Blomgren, who acquired it from a Norman dealer; it had previously been sourced from a dealer in Dijon, who presumably obtained the specimen from a local finder. The artefact has remained in private hands for several decades. Given the nature of its provenance, the piece was consulted with the renowned bladesmith Peter Johnsson, who considers it authentic. The owner kindly shared photographs and metric data for the purposes of this study. The sword is fragmentary, with a total surviving length of 31 cm and a weight of 0.525 kg. The blade fragment measures 16.8 cm in length, with a width of 5.1 cm at the cross-guard and a thickness of 0.55–0.6 cm. One face of the blade is equipped with a single fuller 1.8 cm wide, while the opposite face features a double fuller (with each groove measuring 0.9 cm in width). The grip is 9.7 cm long, and the tang measures 0.4–0.55 cm in thickness and 1.5–2.5 cm in width. The hilt components are loose, constructed of iron, and undecorated. The cross-guard measures 7.9 × 2.52 × 1.5 cm, and the two-piece pommel measures 6.8 × 2.45 × 3.4 cm.
Literature: Unpublished.
Additional photographs of the sword can be viewed or downloaded at the following link:
Fig. 7: French sword from a private collection. Source: T. Holmström.
Site: Unknown.
Storage and inv. no.: Musée de l’Armée, Paris, J PO 2253.
Brief description: The Musée de l’Armée holds a sword of Petersen Type N/X from an unspecified location. As other Early Medieval swords in the same exhibition originate from diverse European regions – such as Latvia – its provenance cannot be determined (cf. Reverseau 1982: 18). The specimen has likely been in the museum’s collection for several decades; given its state of preservation, it is probable that it represents a river find. The sword measures 94.2 cm in total length, with a blade length of 79.1 cm. The blade width has not been recorded. The point of balance is situated at 15 cm from the guard. A pattern-welded panel and a double fuller run through the centre of the blade on both faces, occupying most of its length and tapering out approximately 10 cm from the tip. The blade is fractured roughly 30 cm from the point. The grip is 10.2 cm long, and the cross-guard measures 10.3 cm. The pommel is either of a two-piece construction (although no rivets are discernible on the upper guard) or is intentionally incised with a decorative line; it measures 7 cm in length and 3.8 cm in height.
Literature: Košta 2021: Cat. No. 3548; Oakeshott – Peirce 2002: 118–119.
Additional photographs of the sword, taken by N. Anderssen, can be viewed or downloaded via the following link:
Fig. 8: Sword from the Musée de l’Armée, Paris.
Source: Oakeshott – Peirce 2002: 118; photography by N. Anderssen.
Site: Dobšice, Czech Republic.
Storage and inv. no.: South Moravian Museum in Znojmo, Znojmo, 23889.
Brief description: Discovered in 1924, this sword was found within an inhumation grave dated to the second half of the 9th or the first half of the 10th century, positioned by the right side of the deceased. The weapon is a Petersen Type X specimen, currently fractured into three sections and missing its tip. The surface is heavily encrusted with corrosion products and organic residues, including remnants of the scabbard and the wooden grip. The current length of the sword is 78.47 cm, while the original total length is estimated to have been approximately 80.5 cm. The surviving blade fragment measures 64.6 cm in length (originally c. 67.5 cm), with a width of 6.6 cm and a thickness of 0.5 cm at the cross-guard. The hilt is at least 13.87 cm long, with a grip length of 8.85 cm. The tang measures 1.95–2.9 cm in width and 0.6 cm in thickness. The cross-guard dimensions are 12.73 × 1.35 × 2.3 cm, and the one-piece pommel measures 6.47 × 3.67 × 1.72 cm. The sword was subjected to X-ray radiographic analysis, which revealed that the lower aperture of the pommel is significantly larger than the tang. More importantly, the radiography identified indications of two shallow fullers on both faces of the blade that are invisible to the naked eye. These fullers are not immediately adjacent; instead, they are separated by a relatively wide, flat median ridge that extends to approximately 10 cm from the current end of the blade fragment.
Literature: Vrbka 1924; Červinka 1928: 157; Dostál 1961: 100–101; 1966: 123; Hošek et al. 2019: 99–100, ID No 50; Hrubý 1950: 313–314; Klíma 2019: 114, Fig. 17.5; Podborský – Vildomec 1972: 157, Pl. LXI.2.
Fig. 9: Sword from Dobšice. Source: Hošek et al. 2019: 99.
Site: Pohansko near Břeclav – Magnate’s Court, Grave H 26, Czech Republic.
Storage and inv. no.: Břeclav-Pohansko, Reg. No. 241..
Brief description: Archaeological excavations conducted between 1959 and 1965 revealed a perfectly preserved Petersen Type X sword within the inhumation grave of a male aged approximately 20–30 years, dated to the period between the late 9th and the mid-10th century. The weapon was found in excellent condition, accompanied by two knives. The total length of the artefact is 92.35 cm with a weight of 1.320 kg; the point of balance is situated 20 cm from the cross-guard. The double-edged blade, measuring 78 cm in length, 7.2 cm in width, and 0.65 cm in thickness, exhibits a steady distal taper towards a short, rounded tip. The blade faces are divided by two symmetrically placed shallow fullers, each approximately 2 cm wide, separated by a central rib; these fullers terminate roughly 68 cm from the guard. Inlaid inscriptions and marks are located within the fullers: on one face, 4.5–25.2 cm below the guard, is the signature +VLFBERHT+, featuring a slanted arm on the letter ‘L’ and a ‘T’ rendered in a ‘Г’ shape. The reverse face bears a geometric mark, IIXII, at a distance of 7.8–14.6 cm from the guard, likely followed by another curved fragment towards the tip. The hilt, with a total length of 14.35 cm, features a 9.6 cm long grip (width 1.46–3.17 cm, thickness c. 0.6 cm). The massive one-piece pommel, characterized by a semi-circular profile and dimensions of 5.87 × 3.25 × 2.9 cm, is mounted slightly asymmetrically on the tang. The straight cross-guard is similarly substantial, measuring 11.69 × 1.5 × 2.67 cm. Archaeometallurgical analysis demonstrated that the blade consists of steel edges welded to a piled steel core, with selective quenching of the edges achieving a hardness of 577 ± 25 HV. Furthermore, traces of a wooden scabbard and textile fragments were identified within the corrosion products near the pommel.
Literature: Hošek et al. 2017; 2019: 76–8, ID No 22; Kalousek 1971: 39, Fig. 26; Košta et al. 2019: 186–7, 191–7; Vignatiová 1993: 92, Fig. 3, Pl. 1.4.
Fig. 10: Sword from Pohansko near Břeclav. Source: Košta et al. 2019: Fig. 21.
Site: Ragnit (present-day Neman), Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia.
Storage and inv. no.: Museum of Prehistory and Early History – Prussia Collection, Berlin, PM Pr 20602 (IV. 13.3017).
Brief description: Discovered before the Second World War near Ragnit, this sword possibly originates from Grave 267 of the adjacent cemetery. Typologically, it represents an Eastern Baltic Type II form according to Kirpichnikov; Prasolov dates the specimen to the 11th century or the beginning of the 12th century. Tomsons’ revision assigns the sword to variant VI of Type T, dating it from the late 11th to the 13th century. The artefact has a total length of 96 cm and a weight of 0.734 kg; this relatively low weight is attributed to the removal of corrosion layers during earlier restoration. The double-edged iron blade, 78.5 cm in length, has a maximum width of 5.1 cm and a thickness of 0.35 cm. A defining characteristic is the presence of two parallel fullers on each face of the blade, originating at the tang and extending to approximately 10 cm from the current tip. The combined width of the two fullers at the cross-guard is 2.3 cm. The blade was forged from a single piece of material, and X-ray examination revealed no evidence of pattern-welding, inscriptions, or marks. The blade exhibits deformation in the form of a bend 42.5 cm below the guard, suggesting a possible grave context. The hilt has a total length of 17.5 cm. The iron pommel is of a two-piece construction, with a upper guard 7.9 cm long and 1.9 cm high, while the pommel cap is 6.9 cm long, 2.7 cm high at the central lobe, and 2.9 cm wide. The iron cross-guard, measuring 10.9 cm in length, 2.3 cm in height, and 2.1 cm in width, is hollow and filled with an unidentified brownish-grey substance. The ends of the guard are slightly curved towards the blade. Organic material, likely leather remains, was identified in the space between the blade and the cross-guard.
Literature: Hošek et al. 2021: 66; Kazakevičius 1996: 109, Cat. No. T-34; Košta 2012: Cat. No. 2387; Mühlen 1975: 33, 143, Taf. 10.4; Prasolov 2011; Prassolow 2009; Tomsons 2014: 131; 2018: 93, 104, 177.
Fig. 11: Sword from the vicinity of Ragnit. Source: Prassolow 2009: Figs 3–4.
Site: Lībagu Sārāji, Grave 39, Latvia.
Storage and inv. no.: National History Museum of Latvia (LNVM), Riga, A 12820: 430–431..
Brief description: During archaeological excavations in 1990, a sword of the Curonian type (specifically Tomsons variant II) was uncovered within a double cremation grave. The burial yielded a second sword, scabbard chapes, spear and javelin heads, agricultural tools, jewellery, and various other objects. While earlier literature (Kazakevičius) placed the artefact in the 12th century, more recent research by A. Tomsons refines the dating to the 12th–13th centuries. The total surviving length of the weapon is 99.3 cm, with a weight of 0.514 kg. The double-edged iron blade, measuring 84 cm in length, with a maximum width of 5.32 cm and a thickness of 0.37 cm, is characterised by the presence of two parallel fullers, each 1.02 cm wide. This double fuller is already discernible at the level of the tang and tapers out approximately halfway along the length of the blade. The hilt, with a total length of 15.5 cm, consists of individually cast copper alloy components; the pommel has not been preserved. The upper guard measures 5.2 × 1.3 × 1.45 cm, while the lower cross-guard is significantly longer, reaching dimensions of 9.0 × 1.3 × 1.2 cm. Both components are decorated with motifs of circles and crosses typical of this specific type.
Literature: Asaris 1992; Kazakevičius 1997: 128; Prasolov 2011: 152–3; Prassolow 2009: 280; Radinš 2009: 72–5; Tomsons 2014: 131; 2018: 301, 304.
Fig. 12: Sword from Lībagu Sārāji. Source: Radinš 2009: 73.
Specimens Excluded from the Catalogue
Site: Östveda, Gästrikland, Sweden.
Storage and inv. no.: The Swedish History Museum (SHM), Stockholm, SHM 11422; 180969_HST.
Reason for exclusion: This Petersen Type V sword, dated to the 10th century, was assessed as double-fullered by Prasolov (Prasolov 2011: 153; Prassolow 2009: 208), a classification subsequently adopted by other authors (Hošek et al. 2021: 66). This assessment is based on a specific illustration (Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: Fig. 3.2), which, however, likely depicts a cross-section of the blade at a point of corrosion or a blade mark. There is no mention of a double fuller in the accompanying text. Furthermore, Androshchuk’s photograph and technical drawing show a standard blade cross-section (Androshchuk 2014: Pl. 140). Consequently, the identification of a double fuller is considered erroneous.
Literature: Androshchuk 2014: 335–6, Cat. No. Gä 28; Thålin-Bergman – Kirpičnikov 1998: 500, Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 13: Sword from Östveda. Source: Androshchuk 2014: Pl. 140.
Site: River Witham, United Kingdom.
Storage and inv. no.: British Museum, London, 1858,1116.5.
Reason for exclusion: The sword is traditionally dated to the 13th–14th centuries. This dating was challenged by E. Oakeshott in his highly popular publication, where he assigned it to the first half of the 12th century, influenced by Leppäaho’s work (Leppäaho 1964). Although some contemporary publications still date analogous Finnish swords to the 12th century (Moilanen 2015), the broader scholarly consensus supports the original later dating. The sword most likely originates from a period following the timeframe under review.
Literature: Alexander – Binski 1987: 261, Cat. no. 170; Breay – Harrison 2015: 39; Bruhn Hoffmeyer 1954: 17–18, Pl. XIIId; Jones 2023: 15–6; Oakeshott 1991: 34.
Fig. 14: Sword from the River Witham. Source: British Museum.
Site: –
Storage and inv. no.: Unknown.
Reason for exclusion: The German auction house Hermann Historica offered a Petersen Type Y sword for auction in an unspecified year (likely after 2020). The hilt of this weapon is decorated with non-ferrous contrasting wire, and the blade features a double fuller. This is a readily identifiable forgery; Type Y swords are, by definition, undecorated (cf. Androshchuk 2014: 83–4; Kainov 2012: 56–8; Kazakevičius 1996: 70–74; Košta – Hošek 2021).
Fig. 15: Sword from a Hermann Historica auction. Source: Hermann Historica.
Site: –
Storage and inv. no.: Unknown.
Reason for exclusion: In 2011, a Byzantine-type sword with a length of 84 cm and a double-fullered blade was auctioned at Christie’s. Although this specimen is generally accepted as authentic by both the scholarly and reenactment communities, it is virtually absent from relevant literature (with the sole exception of Popov 2023). The primary reasons for its exclusion from the catalogue are its entirely unknown provenance and its highly atypical morphology. Assuming the find is authentic, its origin could range from Europe to the Middle East or North Africa. While the hilt exhibits features of the so-called 11th-century “Galovo type”, it also displays significant anomalies: compared to contemporary analogues, it is disproportionately long (approximately 19 cm) and lacks the eyelet rivet characteristic of this hilt type. The blade is also unusual, as all currently known Byzantine swords from this period lack fullers (for morphological analogues, see Baranov 2015; 2017; 2018; 2019; 2025; Husár – Oţa 2020; Yotov 2011a-b; 2012; 2014; 2022; Yotov et al. 2022). In light of these facts, it cannot be ruled out that the object is a skillful forgery or a modern composite, combining a Galovo-type hilt with an earlier Roman blade, which typically featured shorter dimensions, a double fuller, and a long tang (cf. Biborski 1993: 114–119). Doubts regarding its authenticity are further reinforced by the subsequent appearance of an analogous and likely forged cross-guard on the auction market (Baranov – Kubik 2023: Fig. 8).
Fig. 16: Sword from Christie’s auction house. Source: Christie’s.
Acknowledgements
This article would not have been possible without the generous assistance of the bladesmiths who aided in its production. We would like to express our gratitude to Nils Anderssen (nilscraft.no), Gaël Fabre (gaelfabre.com), Petr Floriánek (gullinbursti.org), Peter Johnsson (swordreflections.com), and Karel Loukota (grizzlyforge.cz). Recognition is also due to the dealer Thomas Blomgren (jernberg_history), as well as an anonymous Swedish collector, both of whom shared vital information regarding the French find.
We hope you liked reading this article. If you have any question or remark, please contact us or leave a comment below. If you want to learn more and support our work, please, fund our project on Patreon, Buymeacoffee, Revolut or Paypal.
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