Introduction
Organic finds from early medieval Poland – where the Early Middle Ages are defined as extending up to the 13th century – are remarkably abundant. They serve as vital reference material for neighbouring countries where perishable artefacts are often lacking, including the Czech Republic (e.g. Vlasatý 2022a; 2025). This is equally true of leather bags, purses, cases, pouches, and sacks.
However, research into these objects is hampered by both the absence of a comprehensive synthesis (the primary reference remains the somewhat dated work by Samsonowicz 1982: 102–3) and unstandardised terminology (e.g. kaletka, portfel, sakiewka, sakwa, torebka, woreczek). Archaeological material concerning early medieval leather bags, purses, and pouches from the territory of present-day Poland can be broadly categorised as follows:
- Circular and semi-circular drawstring pouches
Simple circular or oval pouches were found in Gniezno (Purol-Wierzbicka 2015: Fig. 4a) and Wolin (Kowalska 2019: Fig. 111.5). A pouch of this type was also discovered in Kamień Pomorski, where it still contained a coin hoard (Kiersnowski – Kiersnowska 1965: Fig. 84). It has been suggested that, in some instances, these are not pouches but the remains of leather balls (Kowalska 2019: 284–5). Semi-circular or semi-oval variants have also been identified, with examples from Gniezno (Purol-Wierzbicka 2015: Fig. 4b), Kruszwica (Pawlak 2023: 500, Fig. 5.4), and Szczecin (Kowalska 2010: Fig. 78.2–6). Both circular and semi-circular variants are common across Europe and have numerous analogues (e.g. Gräslund 1984: 153; Groenman-van Waateringe 1984: Tab. 24; Siegmüller 2010: 177–8; Thunmark-Nylén 2006: 154–5).
Fig. 1: Example of a circular pouch. Source: Kowalska 2019: Fig. 111.5.
- Rectangular drawstring pouches
Simple, undecorated pouches with a rectangular cut are also known. One specimen, theoretically dating to the 11th century, was found in Szczecin, where it is still fitted with its suspension strap (Dworaczyk et al. 2003: 261, Fig. 15.5). Another piece originates from Szczecin as well (Kowalska 2010: Fig. 78.1). Two further specimens were discovered in Wolin (Kowalska 2019: Fig. 111.6; Wojtasik 1960: Tab. XIV.5). In Wrocław, one item from the 13th century (Kaźmierczyk 1970: Fig. 70j) and additional examples from the 13th–14th centuries (Romanow 1979: Fig. 4t, u) were found. Similar pouches occur in other European localities (Groenman-van Waateringe 1984: Tab. 23–4).
Fig. 2: Examples of rectangular pouches.
Source: Dworaczyk et al. 2003: Fig. 15.5; Kaźmierczyk 1970: Fig. 70j.
- Large-capacity bags
In Opole, an elongated and approximately rectangular bag was found; it was gathered at the mouth over the leather and lacked a drawstring threaded directly through the body of the bag (Bukowska-Gedigowa – Gediga 1986: 80, Fig. 24.6). The object was recovered from layer EII, which is dated to the first quarter of the 11th century. According to the provided scale, the bag measures approximately 58 cm in length and 21 cm in width. Bags of similar dimensions are known from other European sites (e.g. Huisman 2001).
Fig. 3: Example of a large-capacity bag.
Source: Bukowska-Gedigowa – Gediga 1986: Fig. 24.6.
- Bags with flaps
Bags with flaps are rarely preserved. Apart from the object discussed later in this work, the best example of an undecorated variant is a find from Wrocław, dated to the 12th–13th centuries (Kaźmierczyk 1970: Fig. 70k). An ornamented variant is known from an Old Hungarian grave in Przemyśl (Koperski 2003: 368, Fig. 3a), which has numerous Eastern European and Scandinavian analogues from the 10th century (Gáll et al. 2018; Gräslund 1975; 1984: 153; G̦inters 1981: 20–1; Ivakin 2011: Obr. 29; Jensen 1993; Kivikoski 1973: Obr. 917, 931; Krylaszova et al. 2014; Langó 2007: Obr. 159–160; Novicsihin et al. 2017; Puškina 1996: Kat. č. 320–322; Seljun 2021; Schulze-Dörrlamm 1988: 424; Širinskij 1999; Tereščenko 2012; Virágos 2022).
Fig. 4: Example of a bag with an ornamented flap.
Source: Koperski 2003: Fig. 3a.
The Polish finds represent isolated occurrences rather than a representative assemblage. The absence of purses analogous to Scandinavian prototypes is noteworthy (e.g. Gräslund 1984: 153; Sörling 1939; 1945); it is theoretically possible that they were replaced by the simple pouches mentioned above. The temporal and spatial isolation of the preserved specimens precludes a reconstruction of fashion development, in contrast to the situation in Novgorod (Matechina 2009: 173–5).
The following article, which introduces a sparsely published bag from Gniezno, is dedicated to all those interested in everyday history, reenactors, and craftspeople. The text loosely follows a series of papers on early medieval bags and purses produced by the author over recent years (Vlasatý 2020a; 2020b; 2020c; 2022b; 2024a; 2024b; 2026).
Map 1: Find spot location on a map of Europe.
Discovery Circumstances, Dating, and Repository
Between 17 August and 11 October 1995, archaeological excavations were conducted on the western shore of Lake Święte in the centre of Gniezno. These investigations revealed an early medieval settlement situated in the suburbium of the Gniezno stronghold. To date, the results of this research remain unpublished. According to the only official publication, a house was discovered during these excavations which contained a leather bag (Kurnatowska 2008: 354). Based on the archaeological context, the object is dated to the second half of the 11th century.
The bag is on permanent display at the Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno (Muzeum Początków Państwa Polskiego w Gnieźnie) under inventory number MPPPG/A/6918. It has been part of the permanent exhibition since at least 2013 (Kaczmarek 2013).
Fig. 5: The bag as depicted in the only official publication.
Source: Kurnatowska 2008: 354.
Description of the Bag
The artefact in question consists of the remains of a leather bag, constructed from a single piece of material sewn inside-out and subsequently turned. The width of the internal seam allowance (the folded material inside the bag) is approximately 3 mm. The leather, which has not yet been subjected to specialist analysis, varies in thickness between 1.5 and 2.5 mm.
The body of the bag is not perfectly symmetrical; the height of the side walls fluctuates between 119 mm and 129 mm. The maximum width of the object reaches 115 mm, while at the mouth, the dimension narrows slightly to 111 mm. The measurement of 105 mm recorded in the museum catalogue is inaccurate. The body was stitched using an unidentified thread, 0.8–1 mm thick, with a stitch pitch of 3–4 mm. The internal capacity, limited by the current overall thickness of 10–12 mm, provides a depth of approximately one centimetre for its contents. The surface of the bag’s body is interrupted by two horizontal openings. At the centre of the front side is an aperture 26 mm long and 3 mm wide, created by two deliberate incisions and the subsequent removal of the resulting strip to form a slider loop. On the reverse side, there is a 39 mm long and up to 4 mm wide opening, which appears to be an accidental tear, as its crumpled and uneven edges do not suggest a deliberate cut.
The upper closure element – the flap – has a base 123 mm wide and has survived in a severely degraded state, which makes physical manipulation and a definitive reconstruction of the original form nearly impossible. Although the flap exhibits some asymmetry, the tapering on both sides suggests that it originally terminated in a rounded or slightly pointed tip. The existence of this tip can be inferred from a strap-like fragment, 31 mm long and 9–12 mm wide, which likely represents the original edge. In such a case, the complete length of the flap can be estimated at approximately 80 mm. A strap must have been located at the apex of the tip. The owner of the artefact appears to have made rectangular cuts in this area, removing most of the tip and the strap, thereby effectively devaluing the bag. A longitudinal vertical opening in the flap is likely an unintentional crack.
Fig. 6: Photographs showing the front and reverse sides of the bag from Gniezno.
Source: Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno.
Fig. 7: Detail of the flap of the bag from Gniezno.
Source: Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno.
Reproduction
The obtained photographs were consulted with Roman Král (King’s Craft), a professional reenactor and replica maker. The consultation focused primarily on interpreting the current state of the flap, which has become a subject of debate within the Polish early medieval reenactment community. As early as 2013, Kaczmarek published a version (Kaczmarek 2013) in which the bag was interpreted as an analogue to the Elisenhof find (Grenander-Nyberg 1985: 234, 247, Tab. 76; 1993); specifically, that the tip was fitted with a strap which passed through the loop on the front of the bag’s body and was secured with a knot. This view was challenged by a version created by Bartosz Ligocki (Pracownia Projektów Historycznych) based on a personal examination at the Gniezno museum. According to Ligocki’s version, the strap extending from the tip passed through both openings on the body of the bag, with its end situated on the reverse side.
Discussions with Roman Král led to the conclusion that the traditional interpretation is correct, as the opening on the front was originally bridged by a leather strip – now torn away – which functioned as a loop. Furthermore, the opening on the reverse side shows no signs of a deliberate incision, suggesting it played no part in the fastening or suspension system. There is no reason to deviate from a construction similar to the Elisenhof model. It is our view that the maker produced an unusually narrow loop strip, which likely caused it to tear away. The resulting loss of functionality may have prompted the owner to repurpose parts of the material for other uses. In early medieval material culture, which lacked integrated pockets in clothing, bags of this kind represented one of the primary means of transporting and protecting valuable, fragile, or sharp objects that needed to be kept within reach (particularly small silver coins, combs, fire-starting kits, and the like).
The bag itself is a very simple product, manageable for anyone with basic leatherworking skills. Production requires minimal tools: a knife, an awl, waxed thread, needles, and wax. Roman notes that the entire process, including preparation, took no more than an hour. The following photographs show Roman’s approximate reconstruction, featuring a symmetrical design and a wider loop strip. This reconstruction is now held in the collections of the Museum of the Blansko Region in Blansko.
Fig. 8: Approximate reproduction of the bag from Gniezno.
Author: Roman Král, King’s Craft.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Photographs provided by the Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno.
Appendix 2: Photographs shared by Bartosz Ligocki (Pracownia Projektów Historycznych).
Appendix 3: Photographs of the reconstruction created by Roman Král (King’s Craft).
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express their profound gratitude to Marta Siłakowska of the Museum of the Origins of the Polish State in Gniezno (Muzeum Początków Państwa Polskiego w Gnieźnie) for her extraordinary cooperation, her patience in addressing numerous inquiries, and for kindly providing photographic documentation for publication. Furthermore, thanks are extended to Kristián Jócsik (archeoreenactment), Roman Král (King’s Craft), Bartosz Ligocki (Pracownia Projektów Historycznych), and Ireneusz Szymański (Chruścielowisko) for sharing their invaluable professional insights and practical expertise, which significantly contributed to the development of this article.
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