Abstract
Glass finds from the Great Moravian period, numbering several hundred fragments, have been the subject of intensive research since the 1990s, which led to their cataloging and determination of shape and material. In 2025 was it possible to identify a previously unpublished fragment of a gilded funnel-shaped beaker in archival materials. Although this artifact has not been preserved, available documents indicate that it was probably found in the vicinity of the Mikulčice basilica no later than 1956. In the following article, this fragment is compared with the closest analogies and placed in a broader European context. The conclusions of the study indicate that the fragment belongs to the elite group of luxury glass vessels of Western European provenance, which were popular at the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries. The discovery of such an artifact in Mikulčice testifies to the lively contacts of Great Moravia with the Frankish monastic environment and to the fact that its elites followed contemporary trends.
Introduction
It is our pleasant duty to announce the discovery of a previously unpublished and probably the most luxurious glass beaker from Mikulčice, which belongs to the highest class of Great Moravian glass finds. The discovery occurred during the afternoon of January 10, 2025, when the author met with early medieval reenactors Monika Baráková and Roman Král and together they went through the card cabinet of old photographs of Mikulčice finds. To the amazement of those present, Monika Baráková found documentation of a shard with gold foil in a collection dedicated to glass finds, which she was able to identify based on her knowledge of Western and Northern European parallels.
The following text is a summary of our findings about this object, which can be used by both academics and members of the reenactment community. The article, which is an effort to supplement the Great Moravian finds from Mikulčice and at the same time foreign lists of gold-foil glass vessels, is a good example of the contribution of an informed lay public to official archaeology, thus loosely following on from a series of previous articles about Great Moravian elite objects that were identified by reenactors (Vlasatý 2021a; 2021b; 2023). The text is written with the knowledge and consent of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno.
Map 1: Position of Mikulčice on the map of Europe.
Known information
The documentation consists of two paper, single-sided cards containing an illustration, year of acquisition, locality, general chronology and description of the object. Both cards, which are stored in the archives of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno, depict an approximately triangular shard, the place of discovery of which is described as Mikulčice. The first card, marked “No. neg. 6211”, shows a photograph and information that the photograph was taken by the photographer Josef Škvařil in 1956 (Škvařil 1956). The second card, marked “No. neg. 11203”, depicts a drawing taken by the same photographer in 1963 (Škvařil 1963). The cards lack scale.
The shard represents part of the mouth of an early medieval funnel-shaped beaker. The exact dimensions cannot be determined; based on analogies, it can only be said that the height could have ranged from 11-19 cm and the mouth diameter was approximately 8-13 cm. The shard was curved in both directions and had a reinforced edge. The drawing and photo are black and white, which makes it impossible to identify the colour of the glass. The illustrations shown indicate a non-transparent and dark material, and it is not possible to determine whether this is the original colour (blue soda-plant ash glass) or contamination of the original transparent glass (colourless or greenish natron glass). Judging by the closest analogies (Holand 2003b: 220) and the Mikulčice material (Rohanová 2020: 362), both possibilities are equally likely, which is emphasized by the graphic reconstruction attached below. Just below the mouth is a damaged gold foil decoration. Assuming that the ornament was regular as in the analogies, it can be expected that it was applied to form rhombic ornaments, which had a double edge line filled with a zigzag line. At the top of the rhombuses there was a small protrusion that pointed towards the mouth of the beaker. In the middle of the rhombuses was placed a flower or cross-like decoration. In the case of using dark blue glass, the gold foil would contrast aesthetically.
Fig. 1: Digitized cards “No. neg. 6211” and “No. neg. 11203”.
Left: 6211 (Škvařil 1956). Right: 11203 (Škvařil 1963).
Stored in the archives of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno.
Since the object has never been published, any details, including the place of discovery and storage, are surrounded by question marks. The shard is missing from specialized literature on Mikulčice glass vessels (Galuška et al. 2012; Himmelová 1989; 1991; 1995; 2000; Olczak 1996; Sedláčková 2006; 2020a-b), older monographs (Poulík 1974; 1975; Poulík – Chropovský 1985) and extensive catalogs of recent years (Kouřil 2014; Poláček et al. 2020). It is not listed in the inventory of gold finds from Mikulčice (Kouřil – Poláček 2013). We believe that the reason why the shard was overlooked has a dual nature, which is related to its discovery and storage:
- Himmelová’s catalogue (1995), the most essential literature on Mikulčice glass, declares that it is based on finds from the excavation seasons 1957-1992. Based on the card “No. neg. 6211”, we know that the discovery took place no later than 1956. Himmelová records only three glass finds from the season 1956/7, the description or illustration of which does not correspond to the discussed fragment. It is therefore very likely that the shard could simply have been slightly older and the author could have overlooked it. The beginning of official excavations on the Mikulčice acropolis dates back to the second half of 1954, which implies that the discovery most likely took place in the years 1954-6, in connection with the excavations around the 2nd and 3rd churches (see Poláček 2018). The discovery near these churches would closely mirror the distribution of gold finds from Mikulčice, which are found exclusively near the 2nd and 3rd churches within the acropolis (see Kouřil – Poláček 2013: Abb. 1; Poláček et al. 2021: 199). At the same time, however, we do not know of a single glass find from the 2nd church, while glass finds are concentrated near the 3rd church (Himmelová 1995: Abb. 1). This means that the fragment of a luxurious beaker with gold foil most likely came from the most prestigious location of the Mikulčice acropolis, near the three-nave basilica, the foundations of which were probably laid at the beginning of the 9th century (Poulík 1975: 87). However, it is unlikely that it was a grave find, as finds from graves and their fills from the area around the basilica are well-published (Klanica et al. 2019). It should be added that at least 13 other funnel-shaped beakers are known from the acropolis of the Mikulčice hillfort (Himmelová 1995: 87; 2000: 86-7).
- The original cards do not indicate an inventory number and we do not know if it was ever assigned. Tracing the object or verifying the inventory number is currently an impossible task, as the Mikulčice base suffered a devastating fire in 2007, which irreversibly damaged a large part of the finds and documentation. However, its absence in Himmelová’s 1995 catalog suggests that the object may have been lost (or fragmented) earlier. The potential loss could have occurred between 1963 and 1995.
Fig. 2: Approximate author’s visualizations of the Mikulčice beaker.
Author: Diego Flores Cartes.
Digitized versions of cards and photographs from the collections of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno can be viewed or downloaded by clicking on the following link:
Analogies
Glass vessels decorated with gold foil have a long tradition in European history, dating back at least to Antiquity (Fremersdorf 1930; Stern 2001: 139-140; Vopel 1899; Whitehouse 2001: 239-251). In the Early Middle Ages, the tradition survived in those parts of Europe that actively claimed Roman heritage – that is, the Frankish Empire and Byzantium. Since the Mikulčice find falls into the group of Frankish vessels, in the following passage we will ignore Byzantine examples (e.g. Schulze-Dörrlamm 2004; 2020).
Together with the Mikulčice specimen, gold-foil glass is currently known from 18 localities (see Catalogue), spread across the original Frankish Empire and its peripheries (present-day Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and United Kingdom), with the Great Moravian finds representing the easternmost Continental occurrence. The production and use of gilded beakers in this region did not last very long, which makes these objects a relatively sensitive chronological indicator. Essentially all datable physical fragments and written references can be assigned to the 2nd half of the 8th and 1st half of the 9th centuries. We can assume for certain that production took place in several places and was linked to large monastic complexes, which were not only found in the Rhineland, as is traditionally suggested (Winkelmann 1977). In Paderborn, the vessels date back to before 778 (Baumgartner – Krueger 1988: 66), while in San Vincenzo al Volturno, production took place in the years 808-820 (Stevenson 1997). Grave 66 from Valsgärde is dated to the period 830-870 (Kyhlberg 2013: 111). The chronology of the Mikulčice specimen from the vicinity of the basilica building does not contradict this proposed dating, quite the opposite. The geographical distribution and chronology of the gilded beakers correspond relatively closely to the so-called Tating Ware, which is a group of cups and jugs decorated with tin foil (Fredriksson – Eriksson 2016; Janssen 1987; Selling 1951; 1955; Steuer 1987: 134-9). In many cases, gilded glass vessels and tinned ceramic jugs were found at the same locations, which indicates the interconnectedness of both phenomena.
Carolingian vessels decorated with gold take the form of funnel-shaped beakers or cylindrical goblets, i.e. luxurious drinking vessels. The vast majority of known pieces are made of light green glass, less often dark blue glass and, to a lesser extent, transparent colourless glass (Holand 2003b: 220). Analysis of one of the beakers shows that glass with an unusually low percentage of impurities was used (Henderson – Holand 1992). Overall, they can be assessed as the most prestigious form of Carolingian glass production.
Fig. 3: Beaker from Dorestad. Source: https://www.rmo.nl.
The exact procedure for applying gold foils is the subject of long discussions and is hindered by the absence of detailed analyzes and advanced experiments. At the same time, it can be assumed that due to the decentralized production, the procedures may have varied. However, essentially all current opinions agree that the gold foil was applied to the outside of the product while hot (Tatton-Brown 1991: 110). In contrast to the traditional Roman practice, which covered the foil with a thin transparent glass layer (so-called Zwischengoldglas), Carolingian glasses are decorated with a simpler variant and do not cover the foil with a glass layer. The protective glass layer is mentioned in Heraclius’ book De coloribus et artibus Romanorum, which was shared and copied during the Early Middle Ages. The same method is described in Theophilus’ work De diversis artibus in the 12th century as the “Byzantine” method. The second method described by Theophilus (grinding gold with crushed glass) does not correspond to the Carolingian tradition either. Some authors suggest the use of a glue-like binder (Baumgartner – Krueger 1988: 65; Stjernquist 2001: 204), which would correspond to the method of applying tin decorations on Tating Ware (Holand 2003a: 205). On some beakers, researchers have noticed etched or engraved grooves at the level of the foils (Holand 2003b: 219-220; Lund Feveile 2006: 220). The author is of the opinion that the dominant method of gilding Carolingian beakers was probably the classical application of gold leaf: glue was applied to the beaker cold with a narrow tool, which created the ornament, and to which a sheet of gold leaf was attached, which adhered to the glue and could be smoothed into the desired shape with a brush or other tool. A modification is the preparation of grooves that gave the shape of the ornament and into which the glue was applied. However, these methods need to be subjected to experimentation before being accepted.
As for the morphology of the decoration, each beaker is somewhat different, which makes it difficult to find direct parallels to the Mikulčice piece. It seems that the commonly used formations are pairs of lines filled with a zigzag line or diamonds. We also find free-standing triangles, diamonds and some beakers were probably inscribed. The finds from Borg (Holand 2003b: 216-220), Dorestad (especially inv. no. WD 811.4.53.60; Willemsen 2009: 150) and Uppåkra (Stjernquist 1999: 79) show the greatest similarity to the Mikulčice shard, using the decoration that is similarly organized into a rhombic structure and crosses. The aforementioned Tating Ware shares this decorative language and can serve as an additional source of analogical formations: for example, the cross on the jug from grave Bj 597, Birka resembles the cross visible on the Mikulčice fragment (see Selling 1951: Fig. 8).
Fig. 4: Reconstruction of motifs on gilded beakers from Borg and Uppåkra.
Source: Henderson – Holand 1992: Fig. 6; Stjernquist 1999: 79.
Fig. 5: Cross on a tinned jug from Bj 597, Birka.
Source: Selling 1951: Fig. 8.
The monastic production and Christian symbolism may indicate the ecclesiastical use of these beakers in the Carolingian world. This assumption could also be supported by the mention of “two cups decorated with gold” (cuppas vitreas auro ornatas duas) donated by Ausegeis, abbot of the Fontanelles monastery, in the second decade of the 9th century (Lundström 1971: 58-9). In the mentioned period, there was no consensus on the correctness of using glass cups for the Eucharist, which leads to diametrically different statements from individual sources. While there are at least four documents from the first three quarters of the 9th century that clearly speak of the use of glass chalices in an ecclesiastical context (Arwidsson 1984: 210; Krueger 2016: 108-9), there are a number of regional regulations from the same period that prohibit the use of glass vessels for the Eucharist, for example the sixth canon of the Council of Reims of 813:
“The chalice of the Lord should be of silver, if not of gold, but if a man is poor, at least of tin. But it is not to be made of brass, or copper, because the action of the wine thereon produces verdigris, and provokes vomiting. But no one is to presume to sing mass with a chalice of wood or of glass.” (Augusti 1831: 29).
The beakers we are discussing are burdened with a problem that makes it impossible to unequivocally confirm their use in religious services. This is primarily due to their smaller size, volume and the absence of a stem, which distinguish them from chalices and which is also reflected in the difference in Latin terminology (cuppa × calix). If they were mounted on a stand or polycandelon, part of their decoration would not be visible at all and could be damaged. Glass funnel-shaped beakers are depicted in Carolingian iconography, but never in the hands of church representatives or on altars. The author therefore understands the gilded beakers as a more expensive extension of the undecorated funnel-shaped beakers, of which hundreds are known and for which secular use is assumed. The gilded beakers could simply have been personal drinking vessels of very rich and powerful people from among the leading secular and church representatives who wanted to represent their luxurious lifestyle. This lifestyle impressed the elites on the periphery of the empire so much that they tried to imitate it, which is the reason for the significant demand in Scandinavia, for example (Näsman 1990). Glass finds may not be exclusively related to missionary activity, as some researchers believe (Lundström 1971). In an analogical manner, we can cite the opposite case, where glass chalices with gold accessories (stems) were owned by secular elites and also appear in their last wills (Krueger 2016: 108).
Fig. 6: Illustration of funnel-shaped beakers from the 9th-10th centuries.
Left: Leiden, UB, Ms. BUR Q 3, fol. 138.
Right: Rom, Apostolica Vaticana, Reg. lat. 438. fol. 25r.
Catalogue of Carolingian gold-foil glass vessels
The core of the catalogue is based on the list published by Lund Feveile (2006: 277). This list has been expanded to include finds from the Czech Republic and Great Britain and a revision of Swedish material.
Belgium
- Liège (Evison 1988a: 240; 1988b: 216-8)
Czech Republic
- Mikulčice.
- Uherské Hradiště – Sady (Galuška et al. 2018: 121; Sedláčková 2020b: 366).
Denmark
- Ribe (Jensen 1991: 15; Lund Feveile 2006: 220).
France
- Niedermunster (Haevernick 1979: 165; Salch 1971: 147).
Germany
There is information in the literature about a find from Haithabu (Müller-Wille 1985: 89), which was later re-dated to the Late Antiquity period (Steppuhn 1998: 68).
- Groß Strömkendorf (Pöche 2005: 35-6).
- Paderborn (Baumgartner – Krueger 1988: 66). However, according to Gai (1999: 216), chemical analysis ruled out the use of gold.
Italy
The literature mentions gilded glass from the site of Invellino (today’s Villa Santina), which the author was unable to verify (Isings 2010: 117).
- San Vincenzo al Volturno (Dell’Acqua 1999: 180; Stevenson 1997: Fig. 7.1).
Netherlands
- Wijk bij Duurstede / Dorestad (Baumgartner – Krueger 1988: 66-8; Isings 1980: 230; 2009: 264; 2010: 117; Willemsen 2009: 150-1).
Norway
- Borg, Lofoten (Henderson – Holand 1992; Holand 2003b: 216-220).
Sweden
There are references in the literature to a gilded beaker from the Björnhovda site (Torslunda parish), grave 40A (Hunter 1977: 292; Stjernquist 2001: 199-200). Stjernquist personally examined the fragment and questioned the presence of a coating or painting.
- Åhus (Callmer 1982: 149).
- Birka, grave 460 (Arwidsson 1984: 206; Arbman 1943: 130).
- Helgö (Holmqvist – Arrhenius 1964: 247, Fig. 137; Lund Hansen 2011: 102-3).
- Uppåkra (Stjernquist 1999: 73, Fig. 12, 18).
- Valsgärde, graves 21 and 66 (Lundström 1971: 52-53; verified by Jonas Wikborg).
- Valsta (Andersson 1997: 358).
United Kingdom
- Ipswich (Broadley 2016; 2019: 11, Pl. 4-7; 2021).
- Lyminge (Broadley 2016; 2017).
Map 2: Geographic distribution of Carolingian gold-foil glass vessels in Europe.
Acknowledgment
The discovery of the fragment would not have been possible without the help of reenactors Monika Baráková and Roman Král (King’s Craft), to whom we extend our heartfelt thanks. We express our deep gratitude to the employees of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno, namely Hedvika Břínková, Michal Chovanec, Šárka Krupičková, Václav Kolomazníček and David Spáčil, who verified the state of the archive and agreed to the publication. For their help and consultation, an honorable mention goes to Rose Broadley (UCL London), Lívia Čellárová (Masaryk University Brno), Viktoria Čisťakova (National Museum Prague), Jonas Wikborg (Uppsala University Museum – Gustavianum) and Jan Zajíc. We must also mention Diego Flores Cartes, who is the author of the illustration.
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Fig. 7: Fragments of gold-foil vessels from grave 21 and 66, Valsgärde.
Photos: Katarina Karyotaki, University of Uppsala.
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Škvařil, Josef (1963). Document M-FP-101120300. Archeologický ústav AV ČR, Brno, v.v.i. Available at: https://digiarchiv.aiscr.cz/id/M-FP-101120300.
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